Sanitation Cleaning and Disinfection in the Food Industry

Preface xvii

Acknowledgments xxi

Acronyms xxiii

Part One Chemistry and Problems of Industrial Water 1

1 Chemistry of Aqueous Solutions 3

1.1 Variables 5

1.1.1 Water 5

1.1.1.1 Hardness 7

1.1.1.2 Salinity 8

1.1.1.3 Alkalinity 8

1.1.1.4 pH 10

1.1.1.5 Conductivity 11

1.1.1.6 Scaling Tendency or Corrosion Tendency 13

1.1.2 Salts 15

1.1.2.1 Precipitation 16

1.1.2.2 Sequestration 19

1.1.2.3 Flocculation 26

1.1.2.4 Dispersion 27

1.1.2.5 Suspension 28

1.1.2.6 Anti-redeposition 30

1.1.3 Stability Constant 31

1.1.3.1 Theoretical Meaning 31

1.1.3.2 Practical Meaning 32

1.1.4 Critical pH 36

1.1.4.1 Effect on Bicarbonates 39

1.1.4.2 Effect on Phosphates 40

1.1.4.3 Effect on Sequestrants 41

1.2 Inorganic Competitors 43

1.2.1 Bicarbonates 43

1.2.1.1 Chemical Mechanism 43

1.2.1.2 Physical Mechanism 44

1.2.2 Silicates 44

1.2.3 Sulfates 45

1.2.4 Aluminates 49

1.2.5 Phosphates 51

1.3 Organic Competitors 53

1.3.1 Proteins 53

1.3.2 Starches 58

1.3.3 Fatty Acids 60

1.3.4 Other Carboxylic Compounds 63

1.3.5 Humic Substances 65

1.4 Self-Protected Contamination 67

1.5 Modifiers Affecting Deposits 68

1.5.1 Heating 69

1.5.1.1 Caramelization 70

1.5.1.2 Carbonization 70

1.5.2 Dehydration 71

1.5.3 Polymerization 72

References 73

2 Chemical-Physical Treatment 77

2.1 Softening 77

2.2 Deionization 79

2.3 Dealkalinization 80

2.4 Reverse Osmosis 81

Reference 82

3 Sequestrants 83

3.1 Definition 83

3.2 Coordination Groups 90

3.3 Sequestration Data 91

3.4 Food Cleaning Sequestrants 93

3.4.1 (Poly)phosphates 93

3.4.1.1 Hexametaphosphate (HEMP) 97

3.4.1.2 Pyrophosphate 98

3.4.1.3 Monomeric Phosphates 99

3.4.1.4 Tripolyphosphate 99

3.4.2 Phosphonates 100

3.4.2.1 Phosphonates and pH 103

3.4.2.2 Stability of Phosphonates 105

3.4.2.3 Phosphonates and Corrosion Inhibition 106

3.4.3 Hydroxy Acids 109

3.4.4 Poly(co-poly)acrylates 118

3.4.5 Aminopolycarboxylic Acids 131

3.4.6 Polysaccharides and Bentonites 143

References 145

Part Two Characterization of Chemicals Used in the Sanitation Process 149

4 Laboratory Tests 151

4.1 Turbidimetric Tests 151

4.1.1 Sequestration Test (Oxalate) 152

4.1.2 Nephelometric Titration 153

4.1.3 Sequestration Test (Hampshire) 153

4.2 Suspension Test 154

4.3 Dispersion Test 155

4.4 Static Test of Scale Forming 155

4.5 Dynamic Test of Scale Formation 156

4.6 Static Test of Scale/Soil Dissolution 157

4.7 Dynamic Test of the Dissolution of Scale/Soil 157

4.8 Chemical Stability Test 157

4.9 Solution Stability 158

4.10 Sequestrant Stability 159

4.11 EDTA and Calcium Titration 159

4.11.1 Titration of EDTA 159

4.11.2 Titration of Calcium Salts 160

References 160

5 Surfactants, Caustics, and Acids 161

5.1 Surfactants 161

5.1.1 HLB 162

5.1.2 Grouping of Surfactants 164

5.1.2.1 Anionic Surfactants 165

5.1.2.2 Nonionic Surfactants 166

5.1.2.3 Cationic Surfactants 167

5.1.2.4 Amphoteric Surfactants 167

5.1.3 Defoamers 168

5.1.4 Wetting Agents 169

5.1.5 Cleaning Agents 172

5.1.6 Disinfectants 172

5.1.7 Structural Boosters 174

5.1.8 Biodegradability and Toxicity 174

5.1.9 BPD and REACh 175

5.2 Caustics 176

5.3 Acids 179

References 181

Part Three Application to the Food Industry 183

6 Bottlewashing 185

6.1 Pre-washing 189

6.2 Caustic Zone 189

6.2.1 Modifications Induced by Alkalinity 190

6.2.2 Label Removal 194

6.2.3 Self-Adhesive Labels 201

6.2.4 Ceramic Labels 202

6.2.5 Mold Removal 204

6.2.6 Plastic Bottles 207

6.2.6.1 Procedure for Testing for Stress Cracking due to Cleaning Solutions 211

6.2.6.2 Procedure for Testing for Haze Suppression 212

6.2.6.3 Procedure for Screening Defoamer Rinsability 212

6.2.7 Exhausted Solution 213

6.2.8 Sequestrants in Washing 214

6.2.8.1 Polyphosphates and Phosphates 215

6.2.8.2 Gluconate and Gluconic Acid 215

6.2.8.3 Phosphonates 216

6.2.8.4 Phosphono-Carboxylate Polymers 217

6.2.8.5 Acrylic Polymers 217

6.2.8.6 EDTA and NTA 217

6.2.8.7 Polysaccharides and Bentonites 219

6.3 Rinse Section 219

6.3.1 Rinse Design and Chemicals Application 221

6.3.1.1 Second Rinse 223

6.3.2 Sequestrants of Rinse 224

6.3.3 Inlet Position 227

6.4 Environmental Impact from Labels 228

6.5 Outcoming Bottles 228

6.5.1 Non-homogeneous Coating of Water on the Bottles 229

6.5.2 Bottles React with Phenolphthalein 229

6.5.3 Bottles Dry Leaving Whitish Streaks or Foggy Glass 230

6.5.4 Homogeneous White Scale Covers Bottles 230

6.5.5 External Non-homogeneous Deposit on the Bottle 230

6.5.6 Bottles Contain Residues 231

6.5.7 Bottles Drain Leaving More than 2 Drops of Water 231

6.5.8 Bottles Sparkling when Just Filled 232

6.5.9 Just-Filled Bottles Contain Micro-Bodies (or Some Time After Filling) 232

6.6 Microbiological Condition of a Bottlewasher 232

6.7 What Can or Cannot Be Cleaned 234

6.7.1 Removable Organic Soils 235

6.7.2 Inorganic Soil Removable with Acids 236

6.8 Concepts of Problem Solving in Cleaning Bottles 236

6.8.1 Glass Bottles 236

6.8.2 Plastic Bottles (PET, PEN) 237

6.8.3 Plastic Bottles (PC-HOD) 238

6.9 Cold Aseptic Filling (CAF) 238

6.9.1 CAF Technology 239

6.9.2 Microbiological Sensitiveness 241

6.9.3 Cleaning Programs 242

References 244

7 Lubrication 247

7.1 Theory of Lubrication 247

7.1.1 Friction 248

7.1.2 Lubricity 250

7.1.3 Variables of Lubrication 253

7.1.3.1 Quantity of Solution on the Track 254

7.1.3.2 Quantity of Lubricant on the Track 254

7.1.3.3 Speed of the Track 255

7.1.3.4 Temperature of the Track 256

7.1.3.5 Friction and Micro-friction 256

7.1.3.6 Dry Tracks 257

7.1.3.7 Bottles, Cans, and Composite Containers (Cartons) 257

7.1.3.8 Type of Beverage 259

7.2 Soap-based Lubrication 260

7.2.1 Buffering Power and Alkalinity Donors 261

7.2.2 Types of Fatty Acids and their Concentration 263

7.2.3 Sequestrants 265

7.2.4 Keeping Tracks Clean 266

7.2.5 Fluidifying and Antigelling 267

7.2.6 Foam Control 268

7.3 Amine-Based Lubricants 269

7.3.1 Types of Lubricating Molecules 270

7.3.2 Anionic Interference 272

7.3.3 Sequestrants 274

7.3.3.1 Glycine 276

7.3.3.2 Lauryldimethylamine [CH₃ (lauryl) CH₂–N(CH₃)₂] (LDMA) 277

7.3.3.3 Fatty Alcohol Ethoxy Carboxylate (FAEC) 278

7.3.4 Cleaning and Microbial Control 279

7.3.5 Biofouling in the Delivery Plant 281

7.3.6 Chlorine Dioxide in Preventing Biofouling 283

7.3.7 Foam Control 284

7.4 Imidazoline-Based Lubrication 285

7.5 Lubrication Based on Fatty Quaternary Ammonium Compounds (FQACs) 286

7.6 Silicone-Based Lubricant 288

7.7 Dry Lubrication 290

7.8 Stress Cracking 294

7.9 Concepts of Problem Solving in Lubrication 297

References 299

8 CIP (Cleaning in Place) 301

8.1 CIP Classification 302

8.1.1 Total Loss CIP 302

8.1.2 Partial Recovery CIP 303

8.1.3 Total Recovery CIP 304

8.2 CIP Parameters 304

8.2.1 Flow Velocity 306

8.2.2 Flow Rate 307

8.2.3 Temperature 309

8.3 Dairy 310

8.3.1 Treatment with Heat Exchange 311

8.3.1.1 Conversion of Stainless Steel Oxides 316

8.3.2 Raw Milk Line 316

8.3.3 Separator 318

8.3.4 Churning 319

8.3.5 Curdmaking Process 320

8.4 Processed Food 324

8.4.1 Evaporator 326

8.4.2 Dough-Kneading Machine and Extruder 328

8.4.3 Pasteurizer and Sterilizer 328

8.4.4 Cooking, Baking, and Frying 332

8.4.5 Smoke Chambers 335

8.4.6 Blanching 336

8.4.7 High-Temperature Scraped Sterilizer 338

8.4.8 Fresh Cut Produce (4th Gamme) 339

8.4.8.1 Cleaning and Disinfection Procedures 344

8.4.9 Mechanical Cleaning of Equipment 347

8.5 Winery 349

8.5.1 Cleaning in the Cellar 349

8.5.2 Stabilization of Wine 351

8.5.3 Cleaning and Disinfection of Wooden Barrels 352

8.5.3.1 Disinfection of Wood 353

8.6 Enzymatic Cleaning in Food Detergency 355

8.6.1 Protease 357

8.6.2 Lipase 358

8.6.3 Amylase 358

8.7 Chemicals for Cleaning Tenacious Contamination 358

References 360

9 Acidic Cleaning 363

9.1 Infinite Dilution 364

9.2 Sequestrants 364

9.3 Cleaning of Molds 366

9.4 Cleaning of Chocolate Molds 368

9.5 Acidic Cleaning in a Brewery 370

9.5.1 Acids 372

9.5.2 Sequestrants 372

9.5.3 Surfactants 373

References 373

10 Open Aqueous Systems Exchanging Heat 375

10.1 Tunnel Pasteurizers 375

10.1.1 Deposition and Scale 377

10.1.2 Microbiology 378

10.1.3 Corrosion 378

10.1.4 Dome Staining 381

10.1.5 Chemical Treatments 382

10.1.5.1 Scale and Biofouling 382

10.1.5.2 Corrosion 383

10.1.5.3 Packaging Damage 383

10.2 Cooling Tower 383

References 385

11 Foam and Gel Cleaning 387

11.1 Foam 388

11.2 Gel 390

11.3 Foam-Gel Synergism 390

11.4 Body Structure 393

11.5 Sequestrants 394

11.6 Foam/Gel Free OPC 396

11.7 Practical Problem Solving in OPC 396

11.7.1 Bluish Stains 396

11.7.2 Yellowish-White Stain 397

11.7.3 Fat Removal in Patches 397

11.8 Equipment for Pressure Washing 398

11.8.1 Centralized Equipment 399

11.8.2 Decentralized Equipment 399

11.8.3 Loss in Pressure 400

11.8.4 Loss in Temperature 400

11.8.5 Generation of Aerosol 402

References 402

12 Membrane Cleaning (Crossflow Filtration) 403

12.1 Membrane 406

12.2 Module 410

12.2.1 Plate and Frame 410

12.2.2 Hollow Fibers 411

12.2.3 Tubular 412

12.2.4 Spiral Wound (SW) 413

12.2.5 Pleated 414

12.2.6 Modules 414

12.3 Diafiltration and Chromatography 416

12.4 Electrodialysis 418

12.5 Ultrasound Applied to Membrane Processings 419

12.6 Fields of Application 419

12.7 Cleaning 420

12.7.1 Alkalinity 421

12.7.2 Sequestrants 422

12.7.3 Surfactants 423

12.7.4 Enzymatic Systems 423

12.7.5 Acids 424

12.8 Cleaning Procedures 425

References 427

13 Milk Production 429

13.1 Mastitis 429

13.2 Cow and Milk 431

13.3 Milking CIP 434

13.4 Bulk Milk Tanks 438

13.5 Raw Milk Quality Standards 439

Reference 440

14 Biofilm 441

14.1 Microbiological Background 441

14.2 Formation and Growth of Biofilm 445

14.2.1 Surface Condition 447

14.2.2 Environmental Conditions 448

14.3 Practical Significance 448

14.4 Cleaning and Disinfection 451

14.4.1 Alkaline Cleaning 452

14.4.2 Acidic Cleaning 452

14.4.3 Disinfection 452

References 457

15 Environmental Sanitation 459

15.1 Environmental Particles 459

15.2 Physical Control 462

15.2.1 Air Filtration and Clean Rooms 462

15.2.2 Ultraviolet Radiation 464

15.3 Control by Chemicals 467

15.3.1 Atomization and Aerosolization 467

15.3.2 Chemicals 468

15.3.2.1 Aldehydes 469

15.3.2.2 Nitrogen Derivatives 469

15.4 Mold Control and Prevention 469

References 471

16 Ultrasound Cleaning 473

References 476

17 Corrosion and Corrosion Inhibition 477

17.1 Calculation and Monitoring of Corrosion 477

17.1.1 Intensity and Rate 478

17.1.2 Electrochemistry 479

17.2 Stainless Steel and Chloride 484

17.3 Chromium and Chemicals 486

17.4 Aluminium and Caustics/Acids 488

17.5 Copper and its Alloys 489

17.6 Zinc (Galvanized Steel) 490

17.7 Biofilm 491

17.8 Reliability of Supply 491

17.9 Post-Installation Treatment of Stainless Steel 493

17.9.1 Procedures and Recommendations 495

17.9.2 Example of Complete Program 495

17.9.3 Example of Simplified Program 496

17.9.4 Gaskets 496

References 497

18 Disinfectants and Sanitation Technology 499

18.1 Water 500

18.2 Manufacturing Environment and Types of Microorganisms 502

18.3 Disinfectants 504

18.3.1 Main Disinfectants for the Food Industry 506

18.3.2 Biocides from the Haber-Willstätter Reaction 506

18.3.3 How to Choose a Disinfectant 512

18.3.3.1 Basic Behavior Typifying the Application of Disinfectants 514

18.4 Physical Disinfection 521

18.4.1 Disinfection by Heating 521

18.4.2 Disinfection by UV Radiation 524

18.4.3 Disinfection by Filtration 525

18.4.4 Disinfection by Electrolyzed Water 527

18.4.5 Disinfection by Cold Plasma 529

18.4.6 Disinfection by High Pressure 531

18.4.7 Disinfection by Pulsed Electric Field 532

18.5 Regularity and Perseverance in Sanitation 534

18.6 Sanitation Plan 536

18.6.1 Early Stage 536

18.6.2 Planning 537

18.6.3 Validation 537

18.6.4 Application 537

18.6.4.1 Assessment of the Sanitation Result 538

18.7 Rapid Controls of Sanitation 539

18.7.1 Bioluminometer 540

18.7.2 Proteins Test 540

18.8 European (EN) Microbiological Tests 541

18.8.1 Bactericidal Activity 542

18.8.1.1 EN 1040 542

18.8.1.2 EN 1276 543

18.8.1.3 EN 1656 543

18.8.1.4 EN 13727 543

18.8.2 Fungicidal Activity 543

18.8.2.1 EN 1275 543

18.8.2.2 EN 1650 543

18.8.2.3 EN 1657 544

18.8.2.4 EN 13624 544

18.8.3 Sporicidal Activity 544

18.8.3.1 EN 14347 544

18.8.3.2 EN 13704 544

18.8.4 Main Tests Methodology 544

18.8.4.1 NF EN 1276 Procedure 544

18.8.4.2 NF EN 1650 Procedure 545

18.8.4.3 NF EN 13697 Procedure 546

18.8.4.4 NF EN 13704 Procedure 547

18.9 Hand Washing and Disinfection 547

18.9.1 Handwashing Products Structure 549

18.9.2 Handwashing Disinfectants 550

18.9.2.1 Products Performing Cleaning and Disinfection 551

18.9.2.2 Products for Terminal Disinfection after Washing 552

References 552

19 Waste Water Treatment 555

19.1 Understanding Terms 555

19.2 Purification Process 557

19.2.1 Preliminary Treatments 557

19.2.2 Chemical Treatment 558

19.2.3 Settling, Concentration, and Dewatering 559

19.2.4 Biological Treatment 561

19.2.5 Final Treatments 563

References 564

20 Boiler Treatment 565

20.1 Deaeration and the Generation of Noncorrosive Steam 565

20.1.1 Generation of Noncorrosive Steam 567

20.2 Scale Prevention 568

20.3 Chemical Treatments 571

20.4 Chemical Cleaning 571

References 573

21 Due Diligence (HACCP) 575

Index 577