Bio-Based Packaging Material, Environmental and Economic Aspects Wiley Series in Renewable Resource Series

Bio-Based Packaging

An authoritative and up-to-date review of sustainable packaging development and applications

Bio-Based Packaging explores using renewable and biodegradable materials as sustainable alternatives to non-renewable, petroleum-based packaging. This comprehensive volume surveys the properties of biopolymers, the environmental and economic impact of bio-based packaging, and new and emerging technologies that are increasing the number of potential applications of green materials in the packaging industry. Contributions address the advantages and challenges of bio-based packaging, discuss new materials to be used for food packaging, and highlight cutting-edge research on polymers such as starch, protein, polylactic acid (PLA), pectin, nanocellulose, and their nanocomposites.

In-depth yet accessible chapters provide balanced coverage of a broad range of practical topics, including life cycle assessment (LCA) of bio-based packaging products, consumer perceptions and preferences, supply chains, business strategies and markets in biodegradable food packaging, manufacturing of bio-based packaging materials, and regulations for food packaging materials. Detailed discussions provide valuable insight into the opportunities for biopolymers in end-use sectors, the barriers to biopolymer-based concepts in the packaging market, recent advances made in the field of biopolymeric composite materials, the future of bio-plastics in commercial food packaging, and more. This book:

• Provides deep coverage of the bio-based packaging development, characterization, regulations and environmental and socio-economic impact
• Contains real-world case studies of bio-based packaging applications
• Includes an overview of recent advances and emerging aspects of nanotechnology for development of sustainable composites for packaging
• Discusses renewable sources for packaging material and the reuse and recycling of bio-based packaging products

Bio-Based Packaging is essential reading for academics, researchers, and industry professionals working in packaging materials, renewable resources, sustainability, polymerization technology, food technology, material engineering, and related fields.

For more information on the Wiley Series in Renewable Resources, visit www.wiley.com/go/rrs

List of Contributors xix

Series Preface xxvii

Preface xxix

1 Starch-Based Packaging Materials 1
Ying Chen, Kai Lu, Hongsheng Liu, and Long Yu

1.1 Introduction 1

1.2 Macrostructures and Phase Transitions of Starch 2

1.2.1 Microstructures of Starch Granules 2

1.2.2 Phase Transition During Thermal Processing 3

1.3 Extrusion Processing for Starch 5

1.3.1 Phase Transition During Extrusion 5

1.3.2 Rheological Behaviors of Starch-Based Materials 6

1.4 Improving Mechanical Properties by Reinforcement 7

1.4.1 Reinforcement by Natural Fillers 7

1.4.2 Starch-Based Nanocomposites 9

1.4.3 Self-Reinforced Composites 11

1.4.4 Blending with Other Natural Polymers 12

1.4.5 Functionalized Composites 14

1.5 Reducing Moisture Sensitivity by Coating 15

1.6 Applications in Packaging 16

1.7 Summary and Future Work 17

Acknowledgments 19

References 19

2 Protein-Based Materials for Packaging Applications 27
V. G. Martins, V. P. Romani, P. C. Martins, and D. Nogueira

2.1 Introduction 27

2.2 Proteins 28

2.3 Protein Films for Food Packaging 29

2.4 Film Production Processes 32

2.5 Characterization of Films 34

2.5.1 Mechanical Properties 34

2.5.2 Barrier Properties 35

2.5.3 Structural Properties 36

2.5.4 Thermal and Optical Properties 37

2.5.5 Biodegradability of Polymers 37

2.6 Protein Films Application 38

2.7 Challenges and Future Perspectives 41

2.8 Conclusions 43

References 43

3 Protein-Based Biodegradable Polymer: From Sources to Innovative Sustainable Materials for Packaging Applications 51
Huafeng Tian, Yunxuan Weng, Rakesh Kumar, Priya Rani, and Gaiping Guo

3.1 Introduction 51

3.2 Forms of Packaging Materials 52

3.3 Commercially Available Proteinous Material for Packaging 52

3.4 Preparation Methods for Protein-Based Materials for Different Packaging Applications 53

3.5 Properties of Protein-Based Packaging Materials 54

3.5.1 Mechanical Properties 54

3.5.2 Moisture Resistance 56

3.5.3 Barrier Properties 56

3.5.4 Biodegradability 57

3.5.5 Antimicrobial Properties 58

3.6 Nanomaterials Incorporated Protein-Based Packaging Materials 58

3.6.1 Protein/Inorganic Filler Nanocomposites 58

3.6.2 Protein/Organic Filler Nanocomposites 60

3.7 Protein-Based Blends as Packaging Materials 61

3.7.1 Protein/Natural Polymer Blends 61

3.7.2 Protein/Synthetic Biopolymeric Blends 62

3.8 Conclusions 63

References 63

4 Chitin/Chitosan Based Films for Packaging Applications 69
J.M. Moura, B.S. Farias, T.R.S. Cadaval, and L.A.A. Pinto

4.1 Introduction 69

4.2 Chitin and Chitosan 70

4.3 Physicochemical and Biological Properties of Chitosan-Based Films 72

4.3.1 Mechanical and Barrier Properties 72

4.3.2 Antimicrobial Properties 78

4.3.3 Antioxidant Characteristics 79

4.4 Conclusion and Future Perspectives 80

References 81

5 Perspectives for Chitin/Chitosan Based Films as Active Packaging Systems on a Food Product 85
Ewelina Jamróz, Piotr Kulawik, and Fatih Özogul

5.1 Introduction 85

5.2 The Effect of the Incorporation of Chitosan on the Properties of Films 86

5.3 Blends of Chitosan and Other Biopolymers 88

5.4 Characterization of Chitosan Films with Nanofillers 89

5.5 Preparation of Chitosan Films with Active Compounds 92

5.6 Chitosan-Based Films as Packaging Material Systems 93

5.7 Conclusions 98

References 99

6 Pectin-Based Bionanocomposite Coating for Food Packaging Applications 105
Dr. M. Vishnuvarthanan

6.1 Introduction 105

6.2 Polymers in Food Packaging 106

6.3 Surface Modification of Polymers 106

6.4 Antimicrobial Packaging 106

6.5 Biopolymers 106

6.6 Pectin 107

6.7 Bionanocomposites 107

6.8 Nanoclay 107

6.9 Silver Nanoparticles 107

6.10 Pectin-Based Bionanocomposite Coating 108

6.10.1 Preparation and Coating of Pectin-Based Bionanocomposite 108

6.10.2 Tensile Strength 109

6.10.3 Oxygen Transmission Rate 110

6.10.4 Water Vapor Transmission Rate 111

6.10.5 Surface Color and Opacity 112

6.10.6 Contact Angle Analysis 113

6.10.7 Coating Adhesion Strength 114

6.10.8 Antimicrobial Properties 115

6.11 Conclusions 116

References 116

7 Nanocomposite: Potential Nanofiller for Food Packaging Applications 119
Rafeeya Shams, Qurat ul eain Hyder Rizvi, Aamir Hussain Dar, Ishrat Majid, and Shafat Khan

7.1 Introduction 119

7.2 Nanofillers 120

7.2.1 Nanoclays 121

7.2.2 Silica (SiO₂) 122

7.2.3 Silver 122

7.2.4 Gold 123

7.2.5 Metal Oxide 123

7.2.6 Zinc Oxide 123

7.2.7 Titanium Dioxide 124

7.2.8 Copper Oxide 124

7.2.9 Chitosan Nanostructures 124

7.2.10 Carbon Nanotubes 125

7.3 Nanocomposites in Active Packaging 125

7.4 Nanocomposites in Intelligent Packaging 126

7.5 Nanomaterial Migration into the Food Matrix 126

7.6 Commercial Aspects of Food Packaging 127

7.7 Conclusion and Future Trends 127

References 128

8 Nanocellulose Reinforced Polypropylene and Polyethylene Composite for Packaging Application 133
Mohd Nor Faiz Norrrahim, Tengku Arisyah Tengku Yasim-Anuar, S.M. Sapuan, R.A. Ilyas, Mohd Idham Hakimi, Syed Umar Faruq Syed Najmuddin, and Mohd Azwan Jenol

8.1 Introduction 133

8.2 Plastic Packaging 135

8.3 Nanocellulose 136

8.4 Polypropylene and Polyethylene Nanocellulose Composites 137

8.5 Compatibility Between Nanocellulose with Polyethylene and Polypropylene Matrices 137

8.6 Processing Method of PP- and PE-Nanocellulose Composites 139

8.6.1 Solvent Casting 140

8.6.2 Melt Compounding 140

8.6.3 Injection and Compression Molding 141

8.6.4 One-Pot 141

8.7 Factors Influencing the Performance of the PP- and PE-Nanocellulose Composites 142

8.7.1 Drying Effect of Nanocellulose 143

8.7.2 Chemical Composition of Nanocellulose 143

8.8 Characteristics of the PP- and PE- Nanocellulose Composites 143

8.9 Conclusion and Future Recommendations 146

References 146

9 Green Food Packaging from Nanocellulose-Based Composite Materials 151
Abdel Rehim M.H.

9.1 Introduction 151

9.2 Synthesis of Cellulose Nanostructures 152

9.3 Modification of Nanocellulose 153

9.4 Properties of Nanocellulose-Based Nanocomposites 154

9.5 Active Packaging Material 156

9.6 Nanocellulose in Smart Packaging 157

9.7 Future Trends and Conclusions 158

References 159

10 Nanocellulose Polylactide-Based Composite Films for Packaging Applications 165
Dogan Arslan, Emre Vatansever, and Mohammadreza Nofar

10.1 Introduction 165

10.2 Polylactide 167

10.3 Nanocellulose Classification 168

10.4 PLA/Nanocellulose Nanocomposites 171

10.4.1 Processing 171

10.4.2 Mechanical Properties 173

10.4.3 Crystallization Behavior 179

10.4.4 Barrier Properties 181

10.4.5 Applications 184

10.5 Conclusion and Future Perspectives 184

References 185

11 Nanocellulose Composite Films for Packaging Applications 193
Latifah Jasmani, Sharmiza Adnan, Z.M.A. Ainun, S.M. Sapuan, and R.A. Ilyas

11.1 Introduction 193

11.2 Preparation of Nanocellulose 194

11.2.1 Nanocrystalline Cellulose 195

11.2.2 Nanofibrillated Cellulose 196

11.2.3 Bacterial Cellulose 196

11.3 Nanocellulose Barrier Property 196

11.4 Nanocellulose in Films 197

11.4.1 Extrusion of Nanocellulose Composite 197

11.4.2 Casting of Nanocellulose Films 198

11.4.3 Filtration of Nanocellulose Composite 199

11.4.4 Coating 200

11.5 Nanocellulose Film in Packaging 200

11.5.1 Food and Beverage Industry 201

11.5.2 Medicine and Pharmaceuticals 201

11.6 Conclusion 202

References 202

12 Utilization of Rice Straw as a Raw Material for Food Packaging 205
Rushdan Ibrahim, S.M Sapuan, R.A Ilyas, and M.S.N. Atikah

12.1 Introduction 205

12.2 Selling Rice Straw 206

12.3 Selling Pulp 207

12.4 Selling Pulp Molded Products 211

12.5 Selling Paper 214

12.6 Cost of Commercialization of Products from Rice Straw 218

12.7 Conclusions 220

References 222

13 Sustainable Paper-Based Packaging 225
Latifah Jasmani, Z.M.A. Ainun, Sharmiza Adnan, Rushdan Ibrahim, S.M. Sapuan, and R.A. Ilyas

13.1 Introduction 225

13.2 Types of Raw Material for Paper-Based Packaging 227

13.2.1 Source of Fiber 227

13.2.2 Types of Pulp 230

13.2.2.1 Chemical Pulp 230

13.2.2.2 Mechanical Pulp 231

13.2.2.3 Recovered Paper 231

13.2.2.4 Non-fiber Material 232

13.3 Papermaking 232

13.4 Types of Paper-Based Packaging 232

13.4.1 Boxes 234

13.4.1.1 Folding Cartons 234

13.4.1.2 Rigid Boxes 234

13.4.1.3 Corrugated Boxes 235

13.4.1.4 Molded Pulp Containers 235

13.4.2 Paper Sheet 235

13.4.2.1 Greaseproof Paper 235

13.4.2.2 Glassine Paper 236

13.4.2.3 Vegetable Parchment 237

13.4.2.4 Waxed Paper 238

13.4.2.5 Decorative Paper 239

13.4.3 Using Types of Paper-Based Packaging 239

13.4.3.1 Food and Beverages Industries 239

13.4.3.2 Transportation Industries 240

13.5 Packaging Requirement for Paper-Based Packaging 242

13.5.1 Physical and Mechanical Characteristics of Paper 242

13.5.2 Other Requirements 242

References 243

14 Properties and Food Packaging Application of Poly-(Lactic) Acid 245
N.H Sari, S. Suteja, S.M Sapuan, and R.A Ilyas

14.1 Introduction: Background and Driving Forces 245

14.2 Properties of PLA 246

14.2.1 Melt and Transition Temperature 246

14.2.2 Crystallinity 247

14.3 Mechanical 250

14.3.1 Physical 251

14.3.2 Thermal Properties 253

14.3.3 Optical 254

14.3.4 Flame Retardancy 254

14.3.5 Water Resistance 255

14.3.6 Grease Permeability 256

14.3.7 Water Vapor Permeability (WVP) 256

14.3.8 Biodegradation Properties as a Packaging 256

14.4 Food Packaging Application of PLA 257

14.5 Conclusions 260

References 260

15 Poly(Lactic) Acid Modified Films for Packaging Applications 265
Jissy Jacob, Sabu Thomas, and Sravanthi Loganathan

15.1 Introduction 265

15.2 Biopolymers 266

15.2.1 Classification of Biopolymers 267

15.2.2 Poly(Lactic) Acid (PLA) 267

15.3 Modified PLA Films 267

15.3.1 PLA/Clay Composites 267

15.3.2 PLA/Carbonaceous Composites 270

15.3.3 PLA/Bio Filler Composites 271

15.3.4 PLA-Mesoporous Silica Composites 274

15.4 Conclusions 275

References 276

16 Polyhydroxyalkanoates for Packaging Application 279
Tengku Arisyah Tengku Yasim-Anuar, Mohd Nor Faiz Norrrahim, S.M. Sapuan, R.A. Ilyas, Mohd Azwan Jenol, Nur Amira Mamat Razali, Mohd Idham Hakimi, Nur Farisha Abd Rahim, and Syed Umar Faruq Syed Najmuddin

16.1 Introduction 279

16.2 Biopolymers 281

16.3 Polyhydroxyalkanoates 282

16.3.1 Characteristic of PHAs 282

16.3.2 Biodegradability and Enzymatic Degradability of PHAs 284

16.3.3 Application of PHAs 284

16.4 Polyhydroxyalkanoate-Based Composites for Packaging Applications 286

16.5 Chemical Recycling of PHAs 287

16.5.1 Pyrolysis of PHAs 287

16.5.2 Application of Crotonic Acid, 2-Pentenoic Acid, and its Derivatives 288

16.6 Future Direction and Recommendations 289

References 290

17 Manufacturing of Biobased Packaging Materials 295
Min Min Aung, Hiroshi Uyama, Marwah Rayung, Lu Lu Taung Mai, Moe Tin Khaing, S.M. Sapuan, and R.A. Ilyas

17.1 Introduction 295

17.2 Bio-Based Packaging Materials 296

17.3 Food Packaging Materials 297

17.3.1 Biomass Plastic in Food Packaging 298

17.3.1.1 Eucommia Elastomer 300

17.3.1.2 Biopolyurethane Using Vegetable Oils 302

17.4 Properties of Bio-Based Packaging Materials 305

17.4.1 Biodegradable Plastic 305

17.4.2 Biodegradable Polyester Composite 309

17.5 Manufacturing Food Applications 312

17.6 Food Industry and Bio-Based Materials Demand 314

17.7 Conclusions and Remarks 315

Acknowledgments 316

References 316

18 Bioplastics: An Introduction to the Role of Eco-Friendly Alternative Plastics in Sustainable Packaging 319
Usman Lawal and Ravi Babu Valapa

18.1 Introduction 319

18.2 Important Biopolymers for Food Packaging 321

18.2.1 Starch 322

18.2.2 Polylactic Acid (PLA) 322

18.2.3 Cellulose 323

18.2.4 Chitosan 323

18.2.5 Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs) 324

18.3 Important Properties of Biopolymers for Food Packaging Applications 325

18.3.1 Mechanical Properties of Biopolymers 325

18.3.2 Barrier Property 325

18.3.3 Antimicrobial Properties 327

18.3.4 Optical Properties 328

18.3.5 Combination with Plasticizers 328

18.4 Biopolymers and the Future of Food Packaging 329

18.5 Conclusions 330

Acknowledgment 330

References 330

19 Bioplastics: The Future of Sustainable Biodegradable Food Packaging 335
S. Ayu Rafiqah, A Khalina, Khairul Zaman, ISMA Tawakkal, A.S Harmaen, and N Mohd Nurrazi

19.1 Introduction 335

19.2 Types of Plastic for Food Packaging 336

19.2.1 Biopolymer 337

19.2.2 Biodegradable Polymer – Polybutylene Succinate 338

19.2.3 Biodegradable Polymer – Polylactic Acid 340

19.3 Food Packaging 341

19.3.1 Starch-Based Bioplastic Packaging 343

19.3.2 Oxygen Transmission Rate 344

19.3.3 Water Vapor Transmission Rate (WVTR) 345

19.4 Active Food Packaging 346

19.4.1 Antimicrobial Food Packaging 347

References 348

20 Renewable Sources for Packaging Materials 353
R.A Ilyas, S.M Sapuan, H.A Aisyah, Rushdan Ibrahim, M.S.N. Atikah, H.N. Salwa, Min Min Aung, S.O.A. SaifulAzry, L.N. Megashah, and Z.M.A. Ainun

20.1 Introduction 354

20.2 Packaging Materials from Bio-based Materials 355

20.3 Development of Bio-based Packages 356

20.3.1 Polycarbonates from Sugars and Carbon Dioxide 356

20.3.2 Chitosan 359

20.3.3 Plant Cell Wall Biopolymers 359

20.3.4 Polyhydroxyalkanoate 359

20.3.5 Polylactic Acid 359

20.3.6 Starch 360

20.3.7 Protein 360

20.3.8 Chitin and Chitosan 360

20.4 Decomposition of Biodegradable Plastics 361

20.5 Renewable Energy Production Using Biobased Packaging Waste 363

20.6 Cost of Bio-based Materials 363

20.7 Life Cycle Assessment 364

20.8 Social Consumption Behavior 364

20.9 Conclusions 365

Acknowledgment 365

References 365

21 Environmental Advantages and Challenges of Bio-Based Packaging Materials 371
R.A Ilyas, S.M. Sapuan, Rushdan Ibrahim, M.S.N. Atikah, M.R.M. Asyraf, Mohd Nor Faiz Norrrahim, S.O.A. SaifulAzry, and Z.M.A. Ainun

21.1 Introduction 372

21.2 Advantages of Bio-Based Packaging Materials 373

21.2.1 Reduction of Waste 373

21.2.2 Reduction in Greenhouse Gas Emission 373

21.2.3 Rapid Decomposition 373

21.2.4 Sustainability 374

21.2.5 New Marketing Opportunities and Export Industries 374

21.3 Challenges of Bio-Based Packaging Materials 375

21.3.1 Inappropriate Regulations 375

21.3.2 Lack of Composting Facilities 375

21.3.3 Manufacturing Costs 376

21.4 Conclusions 377

References 377

22 Life Cycle Assessment of Bio-Based Packaging Products 381
H.N. Salwa, S.M. Sapuan, M.T. Mastura, M.Y.M Zuhri, and R.A. Ilyas

22.1 Packaging: Function and Materials 381

22.1.1 Bio-Based Materials for Packaging Applications 383

22.1.2 Packaging Product Life Cycle 385

22.2 Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) 390

22.2.1 Background of LCA 390

22.2.2 LCA Approaches 391

22.3 LCA Goal and Scope (Definition of a Functional Unit and System Boundary) 392

22.3.1 Functional Unit (FU) 392

22.3.2 System Boundary 393

22.4 Life Cycle Inventory (LCI) 396

22.5 Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA) 398

22.6 Life Cycle Results Interpretation 402

22.7 Conclusions 407

Acknowledgments 408

References 408

23 Reuse and Recycle of Biobased Packaging Products 413
R.A. Ilyas, S.M. Sapuan, F.A. Sabaruddin, M.S.N. Atikah, Rushdan Ibrahim, M.R.M. Asyraf, M.R.M. Huzaifah, S.O.A. SaifulAzry, and Z.M.A. Ainun

23.1 Introduction 413

23.2 Waste Management Efficiency for Bioplastics 417

23.3 Prevention and Reduction 418

23.4 Reuse Bio-Based Products 418

23.5 Packaging Material Recycling 418

23.6 Mechanical Recycling Process 421

23.7 Organic Recycling or Composting 421

23.8 Impact of Aging and Recycling on the Quality of Plastic Materials 421

23.9 Conclusions 422

References 423

24 Socioeconomic Impact of Bio-Based Packaging Bags 427
M. Chandrasekar, T. Senthil Muthu Kumar, K. Senthilkumar, S.M. Sapuan, R.A. Ilyas, M.R. Ishak, R.M. Shahroze, and Suchart Siengchin

24.1 Introduction 427

24.2 Socioeconomic Factors Influencing the Bioplastic-Based Packaging Materials 428

24.2.1 Interest from the Investors 428

24.2.1.1 Market Projection on the Production of Bioplastic Materials 429

24.2.2 Commercial Producers of Bio-Based Packaging Materials and Scope of Application 430

24.2.3 Policy Making and Support from the Government 431

24.2.4 Consumer Perception and Acceptance by Consumers (According to Countries) 432

24.2.5 Challenges for Bioplastics in Packaging Applications 432

24.2.5.1 Material Performance 432

24.2.5.2 Recycling 432

24.3 Future Scope 433

24.4 Conclusion 434

References 434

25 The Assessment of Supply Chains, Business Strategies, and Markets in Biodegradable Food Packaging 437
K. Norfaryanti, Z.M.A. Ainun, and S. Zaiton

25.1 The Context of Bio-Packaging 437

25.2 Types of Biodegradable Food Packaging and Its Characteristics 438

25.2.1 Active Packaging 439

25.2.2 Intelligent Packaging 439

25.2.3 Biodegradable Packaging 440

25.3 Biodegradable Food Packaging Supply/Value Chain 440

25.4 Business Strategies and Market Assessment 442

25.4.1 Strategy and Market Projection 443

25.4.2 Biodegradable Food Packaging Trends 447

25.5 Conclusion 448

Acknowledgments 448

References 448

26 The Market for Bio-Based Packaging: Consumers’ Perceptions and Preferences Regarding Bio-Based Packaging 453
Carsten Herbes

26.1 Introduction: The Need for Bio-Based Packaging 453

26.2 Bio-Based Packaging: An Overview 455

26.3 Consumer Perception of Bio-Based Plastics 456

26.4 Consumer Perception of Bio-Based Packaging 458

26.5 Consumer Identification of Bio-Based Packaging 460

26.6 Industry Perspectives 460

26.7 Conclusion: Problems and Potential Solutions 460

References 462

27 Regulations for Food Packaging Materials 467
R.A Ilyas, S.M Sapuan, L.N. Megashah, Rushdan. Ibrahim, M.S.N. Atikah, Z.M.A. Ainun, Min Min Aung, S.O.A. SaifulAzry, and C.H. Lee

27.1 Introduction 468

27.2 Asia 470

27.2.1 Malaysia 470

27.2.2 Japan 472

27.2.3 China 473

27.2.4 India 474

27.3 Europe 475

27.4 North America and South America 479

27.4.1 History of Formal Food Packaging Regulation in the US 481

27.4.2 US Food Packaging Regulations 482

27.4.3 Environmental Impact of Materials Used in Food Packaging 483

27.4.4 Rigid Plastic Containers 483

27.4.5 Regulations 483

27.4.6 The US Exposure Approach to FCM Legislation 485

27.4.7 The Regulatory Enforcement Process in the United States 485

27.4.8 A Practical Approach to the US Food Contact Materials Regulatory Regime 486

27.5 Australia and Africa 487

27.5.1 Regulations for Food Packaging Materials in Australia 487

27.5.2 Reducing Environmental Harm in the Natural Environment 488

27.6 Regulation for Food Packaging Materials in Africa 488

27.6.1 Foods Based on Cereals and Wheat Production 488

27.6.2 Beers 488

27.6.3 Food Packaging; Reuse, Reduce, and Recycle 490

27.7 Conclusion 491

References 491

Index 495 

Editors

S. M. Sapuan, Professor of Composite Materials, Universiti Putra Malaysia

R.A. Ilyas, Advanced Engineering Materials and Composites (AEMC), Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Putra Malaysia

Series Editor

Christian Stevens, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Belgium