Sensors, Cloud, and Fog The Enabling Technologies for the Internet of Things

This book provides an in-depth understanding of Internet of Things (IoT) technology. It highlights several of today's research and technological challenges of translating the concept of the IoT into a practical, technologically feasible, and business-viable solution. It introduces two novel technologies--sensor-cloud and fog computing--as the crucial enablers for the sensing and compute backbone of the IoT. The book discusses these two key enabling technologies of IoT that include a wide range of practical design issues and the futuristic possibilities and directions involving sensor networks and cloud and fog computing environments towards the realization and support of IoT.

Classroom presentations and solutions to end of chapter questions are available to instructors who use the book in their classes.

Contents

Foreword ..................................................................................................... xiii

Preface ..........................................................................................................xv

Acknowledgments ........................................................................................xix

About the Authors ........................................................................................xxi

PART I INTRODUCTION

1 History and Evolution of Cloud Computing .....................................3

1.1 Introduction .................................................................................. 3

1.1.1 Classification of Cloud Computing .................................... 4

1.1.2 Cloud Computing Deployment Models ............................. 4

1.1.3 Cloud Computing Service Models ...................................... 6

1.2 Computation in Cloud .................................................................. 7

1.2.1 Resource Management ........................................................ 8

1.2.2 Virtualization .................................................................... 11

1.2.3 Green Computing ............................................................. 16

1.3 Cloud Applications ...................................................................... 17

1.4 Summary ..................................................................................... 18

Reference ..................................................................................... 19

2 Sensor Networks and the Cloud ......................................................25

2.1 Wireless Sensor Networks ............................................................ 26

2.1.1 Background and Evolution ............................................... 26

2.1.2 Design of a Sensor Node ................................................... 32

2.1.3 Applications of Sensor Networks ...................................... 33

2.1.4 Challenges and Constraints ............................................... 34

2.2 Unification of WSNs with Cloud: Dawn of a New Era ............... 36

2.2.1 The Significance of Cloud Computing ............................. 36

2.2.2 How Does Integration Work? Example Scenarios ............. 37

2.2.3 Challenges ........................................................................ 40

2.3 Summary ..................................................................................... 41

Reference ..................................................................................... 43

3 Introduction to the Internet of Things ............................................47

3.1 Inception and Background ........................................................... 48

3.1.1 Definition ......................................................................... 48

3.1.2 Characteristics ................................................................... 50

3.2 IoT Middleware ........................................................................... 52

3.3 IoT Applications .......................................................................... 54

3.3.1 Healthcare ........................................................................ 55

3.3.2 Smart City Applications .................................................... 55

3.3.3 Smart Home ..................................................................... 55

3.3.4 Telecommunication .......................................................... 56

3.3.5 Supply Chain Management .............................................. 56

3.4 Open Research Challenges and Future Trends ............................. 56

3.5 Summary ..................................................................................... 59

Reference ..................................................................................... 60

PART 2 THE SENSOR-CLOUD PARADIGM

4 The Sensor-Cloud vs. Sensors and the Cloud ..................................65

4.1 What Is the Sensor-Cloud? .......................................................... 66

4.2 Background of the Sensor-Cloud ................................................. 67

4.2.1 Motivation of the Sensor-Cloud ....................................... 67

4.2.2 Actors of the Sensor-Cloud ............................................... 68

4.2.3 Architecture of the Sensor-Cloud ...................................... 69

4.2.4 Views of the Sensor-Cloud ................................................ 70

4.3 Sensor Virtualization .................................................................... 73

4.3.1 Configurations of Virtualization ....................................... 73

4.3.2 Characterization of Virtualization ..................................... 74

4.4 Sensor-Cloud Applications ........................................................... 76

4.4.1 Case Studies ...................................................................... 76

4.5 Some Insights .............................................................................. 79

4.5.1 Performance Metrics ......................................................... 79

4.5.2 Performance Evaluation .................................................... 81

4.6 Summary ..................................................................................... 84

Reference ..................................................................................... 86

5 Data Flow in the Sensor-Cloud ........................................................89

5.1 Introduction ................................................................................ 89

5.2 Composition of a Virtual Sensor .................................................. 89

5.2.1 Algorithms for Optimal Composition ............................... 91

5.2.2 CoV-I: Composition of VS within the Same Region ........ 91

5.2.3 CoV-II: Composition of VS and VSG across

Multiple Regions .............................................................. 92

5.2.4 Performance Evaluation of CoVs ...................................... 93

5.3 Data Management ....................................................................... 94

5.3.1 Data Caching .................................................................... 94

5.3.2 Data Transmission .......................................................... 101

5.4 Summary ................................................................................... 110

Reference ................................................................................... 112

6 Pricing and Networking in the Sensor-Cloud ................................115

6.1 Scenario for Pricing .................................................................... 116

6.2 The Model for Pricing ............................................................... 116

6.2.1 Assumptions of the Model .............................................. 117

6.3 pH: Pricing Attributed to Hardware .......................................... 119

6.3.1 Selection of the Next Hop Node .................................... 119

6.3.2 Context-Aware Pricing .................................................... 120

6.4 pI: Pricing Attributed to Infrastructure ...................................... 121

6.5 Real-Life Applicability: A Case Study ........................................ 123

6.6 Networking ................................................................................ 123

6.7 System Description .................................................................... 126

6.8 Formal Definition of the Problem .............................................. 126

6.9 Complexity Analysis .................................................................. 129

6.10 Summary ................................................................................... 130

Reference ................................................................................... 131

7 Sensor-Cloud for Internet of Things ..............................................133

7.1 Introduction .............................................................................. 133

7.2 Enabling IoT through Sensor-Cloud .......................................... 134

7.2.1 Contributions through Architecture ................................ 134

7.2.2 Contributions through Functionalities ............................ 137

7.2.3 Contributions through the Life Cycle ............................. 137

7.3 Summary ................................................................................... 139

Reference ................................................................................... 141

PART III FROM THE CORE TO THE EDGE: FOG

8 Fog: The Next-Gen Cloud .............................................................145

8.1 Introduction to Fog Computing ................................................ 146

8.1.1 Where Does Cloud Computing Fall Short? .................... 147

8.1.2 Definition ....................................................................... 149

8.1.3 Fog versus Other Computing Paradigms ........................ 151

8.1.4 Where There Is Fog, There Is Cloud .............................. 158

8.2 Characteristics of Fog Computing ............................................. 160

8.3 Advantages of Fog Computing ................................................... 161

8.4 Summary ................................................................................... 163

Reference ................................................................................... 164

9 Fog Computing Applications .........................................................167

9.1 IoT Applications and Fog Computing ....................................... 168

9.2 Fog Applications ........................................................................ 170

9.2.1 Healthcare and Well-being ............................................. 170

9.2.2 Smart Vehicle Management ............................................ 173

9.2.3 Smart City Applications .................................................. 175

9.2.4 Smart Data Management ................................................ 178

9.2.5 Other Emerging Application Sectors ............................... 180

9.3 Summary ................................................................................... 180

Reference ................................................................................... 181

10 Fog Architecture .............................................................................187

10.1 The Comprehensive Framework ................................................ 187

10.1.1 Communication and Network Model ........................ 189

10.2 Mathematical Model of the System ............................................ 190

10.3 Application Agnostic Fog Architectures ...................................... 195

10.3.1 Programming Models ................................................. 196

10.4 Application-Specific Fog Architectures ....................................... 199

10.4.1 Fog Architectures for Healthcare ................................ 199

10.4.2 Fog Architectures for Smart City Environments ......... 203

10.4.3 Other Application-Specific Fog Architectures ............. 205

10.5 Summary ................................................................................... 207

Reference ................................................................................... 208

11 Towards a “Green”-er Internet of Things ......................................213

11.1 Reference Model ........................................................................ 214

11.1.1 Assumptions ............................................................... 215

11.1.2 Reference Architecture ................................................ 215

11.2 Networking Model ..................................................................... 216

11.3 Performance Metrics .................................................................. 218

11.3.1 Power Consumption ................................................... 219

11.3.2 Service Latency ........................................................... 223

11.4 A Case Study: Simulation Setup ................................................. 226

11.4.1 Network Topology ..................................................... 226

11.4.2 Network Traffic .......................................................... 227

11.4.3 Performance Metrics ................................................... 227

11.5 A Case Study: Performance Evaluation ...................................... 228

11.5.1 Service Latency ........................................................... 228

11.5.2 Power Consumption ................................................... 229

11.5.3 CO2 Emission ............................................................. 230

11.5.4 Cost ............................................................................ 232

11.6 Summary .................................................................................... 232

Reference ................................................................................... 234

12 Security in the IoT .........................................................................237

12.1 Introduction ............................................................................... 237

12.1.1 IoT Security vs. Conventional Security ...................... 237

12.1.2 Difference between Security and Privacy .................... 238

12.2 Security in the IoT ..................................................................... 238

12.2.1 Protocol Stack for the IoT .......................................... 240

12.2.2 Security Threats in the IoT ......................................... 241

12.3 Misbehavior in M2M Communication ...................................... 244

12.3.1 Where Do We Stand? ................................................. 245

12.3.2 Problem Scenario ........................................................ 246

12.3.3 System Model ............................................................. 247

12.3.4 Operation ................................................................... 247

12.3.5 Quantitative Results ................................................... 249

12.4 Summary .................................................................................... 251

Reference ................................................................................... 253

Index ...........................................................................................................257

Prof. Sudip Misra is a Professor in the Department of Computer Science and Engineering at the Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur. Prior to this he was associated with Cornell University (USA), Yale University (USA), Nortel Networks (Canada) and the Government of Ontario (Canada). He received his Ph.D. degree in Computer Science from Carleton University, in Ottawa, Canada. He has several years of experience working in the academia, government, and the private sectors in research, teaching, consulting, project management, architecture, software design and product engineering roles.

His current research interests includes Wireless Ad Hoc and Sensor Networks, Internet of Things (IoT), Computer Networks, Learning Systems, and algorithm design for emerging communication networks. Prof. Misra is the author of over 260 scholarly research papers, including 140+ reputed journal papers. He has won seven research paper awards in different conferences. Recently, he and his students won Samsung Innovation Award and the IEEE ComSoc Student Competition. He was also awarded the IEEE ComSoc Asia Pacific Outstanding Young Researcher Award at IEEE GLOBECOM 2012, Anaheim, California, USA. He was also the recipient of several academic awards and fellowships such as the Young Scientist Award (National Academy of Sciences, India), Young Systems Scientist Award (Systems Society of India), Young Engineers Award (Institution of Engineers, India), (Canadian) Governor General's Academic Gold Medal at Carleton University, the University Outstanding Graduate Student Award in the Doctoral level at Carleton University and the National Academy of Sciences, India - Swarna Jayanti Puraskar (Golden Jubilee Award).

Prof. Misra was also awarded the Canadian Government's prestigious NSERC Post Doctoral Fellowship and the Humboldt Research Fellowship in Germany. Prof. Misra has been serving the editorial boards of distinguished journals such as the International Journal of Communicati