Fire Performance Analysis for Buildings (2^nd Ed.)

A building fire is dynamic. A continually changing hostile fire environment influences time relationships that affect fire defenses and risks to people and building functions. The fire and fire defenses in each building interact with different sequences and distinct ways. Risks are characterized by the building?s performance.

Significantly updated and restructured new edition

Fire Performance Analysis for Buildings, 2^nd Edition organizes the complex interactions into an analytical framework to evaluate any building - at any location - built under any regulatory jurisdiction or era. Systematic, logical procedures evaluate individual component behavior and integrate results to understand holistic performance. The Interactive Performance Information (IPI) chart structures complex time-related interactions among the fire, fire defenses, and associated risks. Quantification uses state-of-the-art deterministic methods of fire safety engineering and fire science. Managing uncertainty is specifically addressed.

Key features:

• Emphasizes fire performance analysis for new or existing buildings.
• Augments fire dynamics calculation methods with qualitative methods to form a more complete understanding of the effects of hostile fire characteristics on building performance.
• Describes fire ground operations for engineers with no fire service experience. An analysis evaluates ways the site and building design help or hinder manual fire suppression.
• Establishes a transition from traditional structural requirements to modern calculation based structural analysis and design for fire conditions. Structural concepts are described for non-structural engineers to enable the roles of each profession to be integrated into comprehensive performance evaluations.  
• Addresses techniques of managing uncertainty to improve understanding and communication with professionals of other disciplines.
• Describes methods of risk management using information from the building?s performance analysis.

Fire Performance Analysis for Buildings, 2^nd Edition has been completely restructured around a performance based framework. Applications integrate traditional fire defenses with fire science and engineering to combine component performance with holistic performance.

Preface xxiii

Acknowledgements xxv

1 Fire Performance and Buildings 1

1.1 The Dynamics of Building Fire Performance 1

1.2 The Anatomy of Building Fire Safety 1

Part I The Foundation 7

2 Preliminary Organization 9

2.1 Introduction 9

2.2 Overview of Evaluations 9

Part One: Organizational Concepts 12

2.3 The Diagnostic Fire 12

2.4 Anatomy of a Representative Fire 12

Part Two: Barriers, Spaces, and Connectivity 15

2.7 Spaces and Barriers 15

2.8 Barriers and Fire 15

Part Three: Fire Defenses 23

2.14 Fire Defenses 23

2.15 Active Fire Defenses 24

2.17 Closure 30

3 Tools of Analysis 31

3.1 Introduction 31

Part One: The Logic 32

3.2 The Framework Logic 32

3.3 The Major Parts 32

Part Two: Space–Barrier Connectivity 51

3.14 Introduction 51

3.15 Room Connectivity 51

Part Three: Additional Tools 55

3.19 Networks and Charts 55

3.20 Organizational Charts 55

4 An Introduction to the Interactive Performance Information Chart 59

4.1 Introduction 59

4.2 The Basic Template 59

5 Quantification 73

5.1 Performance Evaluations 73

5.2 Information Accessibility 74

Part II The Parts 79

6 The Room Fire 81

6.1 Introduction 81

Part One: Room Fire Concepts 82

6.2 Fire 82

6.3 The Role of Heat: Ignition 82

Part Two: Room Fire Descriptors 94

6.17 Introduction 94

6.18 Fuels 94

7 The Room Fire: Qualitative Analysis 119

7.1 The Role of Qualitative Analysis 119

7.2 Qualitative Estimates for Room Fires 120

Part One: Bottom‐up Estimates 121

7.3 Bottom‐up Scenario Estimates 121

7.3.1 Realm 1: FFS to IG 121

Part Two: Top‐down Estimates 133

7.7 Qualitative Room Classifications 133

7.8 FGP Comparisons 133

8 Beyond the Room of Origin 147

8.1 Introduction 147

8.2 The Inspection Plan 147

Part One: Barrier Effectiveness 149

8.3 Barrier Functions in Buildings 149

8.4 Barrier Fire Functions 149

Part Two: Barrier–Space Modules 159

8.8 Introduction 159

8.9 Barrier–Space Modules 159

Part Three: Qualitative Fire Analysis 165

8.17 Introduction 165

8.18 The Process 165

9 Smoke Analysis 175

9.1 Introduction 175

9.2 The Plan 176

10 The Diagnostic Fire 191

10.1 Diagnostic Fires 191

10.2 Interactive Performance Information (IPI) Chart and the Diagnostic Fire 191

10.3 Closure 192

11 Fire Detection 193

11.1 Introduction 193

Part One: Automatic Detection 194

11.2 Instrument Detection 194

11.3 Detection Instruments 194

Part Two: Human Detection 200

11.6 Concepts in Human Fire Detection 200

11.7 Human Detection Analysis 200

11.8 Closure 202

12 Alarm: Actions After Detection 203

12.1 Introduction 203

Part One: Alert Occupants 205

12.2 Focus on Alert 205

12.3 Alerting Occupants 205

Part Two: Notify Local Fire Department 209

12.5 Introduction 209

12.6 Human Notification (MN) 209

12.7 Discussion 212

12.8 Automated Notification Services 213

12.9 Discussion 216

Part Three: Building System Interfaces 217

12.10 Release Services 217

13 Fire Department Extinguishment: Arrival 219

13.1 Introduction 219

13.2 Organizing the Topic 219

Part One: Manual Extinguishment Overview 221

13.3 The Role of the Fire Department 221

13.4 Building Analysis Overview 221

13.5 Part A: Ignition to Notification 223

Part Two: Community Fire Departments 226

13.8 Fire Department Organizations 226

13.9 Fire Companies 226

Part Three: Community Fire Response 231

13.11 Fire Department Response Time 231

13.12 Communications Centers 231

14 Fire Department Extinguishment: First Water (MA) 237

The Fire Fighter and the Engineer 237

14.1 Introduction 239

Part One: An Overview of Manual Extinguishment Analysis 241

14.2 The Process 241

14.3 Phase 1: Initial Water Application (MA) 242

14.4 Summary 248

Part Two: A Brief Look at Fire Fighting 249

14.5 Initial Fire Ground Actions 249

14.6 Information 249

14.7 Pause for Discussion 251

14.8 Manual Fire Fighting 252

14.9 No Two Fires Are Alike 253

14.10 Summary 253

Part Three: Supply Water Analysis 254

14.11 Introduction 254

14.12 Scenario Analysis 254

14.13 Supply Water Analysis 258

Part Four: Interior Fire Attack Analysis 278

14.29 Introduction 278

14.30 Overview of Stretching Interior Attack Lines 278

14.31 Task Modules 279

Part Five: Phase 1 Analysis 290

14.39 Introduction 290

14.40 Phase 1 Comments 290

15 Fire Department Extinguishment: Control and Extinguishment 295

15.1 First Water Applied… Now What? 295

15.2 The Engineer and the Incident Commander 295

16 Automatic Sprinkler Suppression 305

16.1 Introduction 305

16.2 Sprinkler System Performance 305

Part One: Sprinkler Systems 307

16.3 Sprinkler Extinguishment 307

16.4 The Sprinkler System 308

16.5 Types of Sprinkler Systems 309

Part Two: Sprinkler Performance 312

16.6 Organization for Thinking 312

16.7 Agent Application (AA) 312

16.8 Agent Application Events 313

16.19 Automatic Suppression 323

16.20 Closure 324

17 The Composite Fire 325

17.1 Introduction 325

17.2 The Fire Limit (L) 325

18 Materials, Codes, Standards, Practices, and Performance 331

18.1 Introduction 331

Part One: Building Construction 333

18.2 The Structural Frame 333

18.3 Material Behavior in Fires 334

Part Two: Historical Perspective 338

18.4 The Built Environment Around World War I 338

18.5 Structural Practice Around World War I 338

Part Three: Fire Endurance Testing 345

18.12 Fire Test Interpretations 345

18.13 The Standard Fire Endurance Test 345

18.14 Fire Endurance Test Discussion 346

Part Four: Fire Severity 349

18.15 Introduction 349

18.16 Fuel Loads 349

18.17 The Ingberg Correlation 352

Part Five: Transitions 363

18.25 The Issue 363

19 Concepts in Structural Analysis for Fire Conditions 365

19.1 Introduction 365

19.2 Structural Fire Performance 365

Part One: Building Design 367

19.3 The Development Process 367

19.4 Building Design 367

19.5 Information Technology 368

Part Two: Structural Engineering and Building Design 371

19.6 The Master Builder 371

19.7 The Rise of Engineering 371

19.8 The Building 372

Part Three: Structural Engineering 377

19.13 Introduction 377

19.14 Beam Analysis 377

Part Four: Structural Analysis for Fire Conditions 387

19.18 Introduction 387

19.19 Outcomes 387

20 Target Spaces and Smoke 401

20.1 Introduction 401

20.2 Orientation 401

21 Life Safety 411

21.1 Introduction 411

21.2 Human Reaction to Products of Combustion 412

21.3 Tenability 414

21.4 Fire Fighter Safety 414

22 Risk Characterizations 417

22.1 Introduction 417

22.2 The Exposed 417

Part One: Human Safety 419

22.3 Life Safety 419

22.4 Overview of Life Safety Alternatives 419

Part Two: Other Risks 431

22.16 Property Protection 431

22.17 Continuity of Operations 431

23 Fire Prevention 435

23.1 Introduction 435

Part One: Prevent Established Burning 436

23.2 Prevent EB 436

23.2.1 Ignition Potential 436

23.2.2 Initial Fire Growth 437

Part Two: Automatic Special Hazard Suppression 442

23.7 Introduction 442

23.8 Carbon Dioxide Systems 443

Part III The Analysis 449

24 Fire Performance: Framework for Analysis 451

24.1 Organizational Concepts 451

24.2 Performance Evaluations 451

24.3 Analytical Framework 452

24.4 Fire, Risk, and Buildings 454

25 The Diagnostic Fire 455

25.1 Introduction 455

25.2 Top‐down Estimates 456

26 Fire Detection 463

26.1 Introduction 463

Part One: Automatic Detection 464

26.2 Detection Analysis 464

26.3 Detection Example 466

26.4 Detection Estimate 469

26.5 Detector Reliability 469

Part Two: Human Detection 471

26.6 Concepts in Human Detection Analysis 471

26.7 Human Detection Analysis 471

26.8 Closure 473

27 Fire Department Notification 475

27.1 Introduction 475

27.2 The Human Link in Notification 475

28 Fire Department Extinguishment 483

28.1 Introduction 483

28.2 Framework for Analysis 483

29 Automatic Sprinkler Suppression 501

29.1 Introduction 501

29.2 Agent Application (AA) 502

30 The Composite Fire 517

30.1 Introduction 517

30.2 Event Logic Description 517

31 Structural Performance 521

31.1 Introduction 521

31.2 Interactive Performance Information (IPI) Documentation 521

32 Target Space Smoke Analysis 525

32.1 Introduction 525

32.2 Success or Failure? 526

32.3 Target Room Performance Bounds 527

33 Life Safety Analysis 531

33.1 Introduction 531

33.2 The Exposed 531

34 Prevent Established Burning 541

34.1 Introduction 541

Part One: Established Burning Prevention 544

34.2 Ignition Potential 544

34.3 Established Burning Evaluation 544

Part Two: Special Hazards Protection 550

34.6 The Role of Special Hazards Suppression 550

34.7 Framework for Analysis 550

Part IV Managing Uncertainty 555

35 Understanding Uncertainty 557

35.1 Introduction 557

35.2 Window of Uncertainty 557

36 Visual Thinking 581

36.1 Introduction 581

36.2 A Case Study 581

37 Introduction to Risk Management 597

37.1 Introduction 597

Part One: The Process 598

37.2 Audience 598

37.3 Fire Safety Management 598

Part Two: Information Acquisition 604

37.8 Introduction 604

37.9 Understand the Problem 604

Part Three: Develop a Risk Management Program 608

37.13 Structure a Risk Management Program 608

37.14 Evaluate “Prevent EB” 608

38 Analytical Foundations 615

38.1 Historical Origins 615

Part One: Logic Diagrams and Networks 617

38.2 Event Trees 617

38.3 Fault and Success Trees 618

Part Two: Probability 628

38.12 Meanings of Probability 628

38.13 Fire Safety Applications 629

Part Three: The Role of Judgment 632

38.17 Introduction 632

38.18 Building Decisions 632

Appendix A Organizational Structure 637

A.1 The Organizational Framework 637

A.2 Basic Organization 637

A.3 The Composite Fire 637

A.4 The Diagnostic Fire (Ī) 639

A.5 Fire Department Manual Extinguishment 640

A.6 Detection 640

A.7 Notification 642

A.8 Notification to Arrival 643

A.9 Arrival to Extinguishment 645

A.10 Automatic Sprinkler System 646

A.11 Building Response: Structural Behavior 647

A.12 Building Response: Space Tenability 648

A.13 Risk Characterizations 648

A.14 Occupant Movement 650

A.15 Other Risks 651

A.16 Prevent Established Burning (EB): Occupant Extinguishment 651

A.17 Prevent EB: Special Hazards Protection 653

A.18 Closure 653

Appendix B Model Building 655

Description 655

Plans 655

Index 661

Robert W. Fitzgerald, Worcester Polytechnic Institute, USA
Brian J. Meacham, Worcester Polytechnic Institute, USA