Nuclear Materials under Irradiation
Coordonnateurs : Bouffard Serge, Moncoffre Nathalie
The objective of this book is to provide a basis for the research of nuclear materials subjected to irradiation, with the desire to contextualize them in the industrial environment. Therefore, most of the chapters are co-authored and contain a mix of basic and applied research. The reader will find chapters on nuclear reactor materials (structural materials, neutron absorbers, moderators and nuclear fuel) and on materials in waste management (glass, concrete and organic materials). These material chapters are complemented by more general information on defects and their creation, radiolysis and irradiation and characterization tools.
Preface xi
Serge Bouffard and Nathalie Moncoffre
Chapter 1 Irradiation Defects 1
Serge Bouffard and David Siméone
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Some basic data 2
1.2.1 Radiative environments and nuclear materials 2
1.2.2 Some notions about the transport of particles in matter 5
1.2.3 The zoology of irradiation defects 9
1.3 Defect creation mechanisms 11
1.3.1 Creation of defects by elastic collisions 13
1.3.2 Amorphization 16
1.3.3 Creation of defects by electronic excitation 18
1.3.4 Synergy between elastic collisions and electronic excitations 26
1.4 Kinetics of defect evolution 28
1.4.1 Mean field approach: reaction rate theory 29
1.4.2 Evolution of extended defects: kinetics of clusters in the mean field 33
1.4.3 Kinetic Monte Carlo approach 34
1.4.4 Phase field approach 36
1.5 Open-ended problems 38
1.6 Acknowledgements 40
1.7 References 40
Chapter 2 Metal Alloys 47
Philippe Pareige and Christophe Domain
2.1 Introduction 47
2.2 Fuel cladding 52
2.2.1 Growth and creep under irradiation 54
2.2.2 Stress corrosion cracking 56
2.2.3 The mechanisms of the evolution of the properties under irradiation 57
2.2.4 Simulations of growth and creep under irradiation 58
2.3 Internal structures in austenitic steel 59
2.3.1 An effect of irradiation: intergranular segregation 61
2.3.2 Evolution of mechanical properties under irradiation 64
2.3.3 Creep under irradiation 65
2.3.4 Swelling 66
2.3.5 Irradiation-assisted stress corrosion cracking 67
2.4 The vessel 69
2.4.1 Changes in tenacity and resilience 70
2.4.2 Cluster dynamics 72
2.5 Perspectives 77
2.6 References 80
Chapter 3 Ceramics within PWRs 87
Christine Delafoy, Frederico Garrido and Yves Pipon
3.1 Introduction 87
3.2 Development and typical properties of UO2 and B4C ceramics 91
3.2.1 Development and structure of uranium dioxide 91
3.2.2 Development and structure of boron carbide 93
3.2.3 Thermomechanical characteristics of B4C and UO2 96
3.3 Aging of ceramics under irradiation 100
3.3.1 Evolution of the properties of uranium dioxide under irradiation 101
3.3.2 Evolution of boron carbide properties under irradiation 112
3.4 Future challenges 116
3.5 References 120
Chapter 4 Nuclear Graphite 125
Nicolas Bérerd and Laurent Petit
4.1 What is nuclear graphite? 125
4.2 Why use graphite in nuclear reactors? 128
4.3 Evolution of nuclear graphite in reactors 129
4.3.1 Neutron irradiation 130
4.3.2 Irradiation defects in nuclear graphite 133
4.3.3 Evolution of lattice parameters and crystallite size in irradiated graphite 139
4.3.4 Density and porosity evolution by radiolytic corrosion of graphite 141
4.3.5 What are the consequences at the macroscopic scale? 142
4.4 Conclusion 143
4.5 Acknowledgements 144
4.6 References 145
Chapter 5 Nuclear Glasses 151
Magaly Tribet
5.1 Glass of nuclear interest: their role and their aging conditions under irradiation 151
5.1.1 What is this kind of glass for? 151
5.1.2 What does this glass actually contain and in what form? 152
5.1.3 Nuclear glass radioactivity 154
5.1.4 A complex scenario of glass aging under deep geological conditions 157
5.2. How are the effects of long-term irradiation studied at the laboratory scale? 158
5.3 Closed system: evolution of glass subjected to its self-irradiation and to the accumulation of helium 161
5.3.1 Impact of βγ irradiation 161
5.3.2 Effects of α decays 163
5.3.3 Accumulation of helium 165
5.3.4 Summary of knowledge in closed system 166
5.4 Open system: alteration of glass by water under irradiation 167
5.4.1 General information on the behavior of glass under water – methodology 167
5.4.2 Taking irradiation into account in this multi-phase system 170
5.4.3 Irradiation and initial alteration rate 170
5.4.4 Irradiation and residual alteration rate 172
5.4.5 Summary on the behavior of glass under water and under irradiation 174
5.5 Summary and prospects 175
5.6 Acknowledgements 176
5.7 References 176
Chapter 6 Radiolysis of Porous Materials and Radiolysis at Interfaces 181
Sophie Le Caër and Jean-Philippe Renault
6.1 Introduction 181
6.2 General information on radiolysis 182
6.2.1 A few definitions 182
6.2.2 Radiolysis of liquid water 183
6.3 Main porous materials of interest 185
6.4 Dosimetry in heterogeneous media 186
6.5 Production of dihydrogen by radiolysis of water in a confined medium 187
6.5.1 Methods for calculating the yield of dihydrogen production 187
6.5.2 Reaction mechanisms 189
6.5.3 Different parameters influencing the production of dihydrogen under irradiation 190
6.6 Understanding transient phenomena 191
6.6.1 Study of a short-lived species, the hydroxyl radical 191
6.6.2 Confinement effect on the reactions taking place and their rate constants 193
6.7 Conclusion: what about the effects of radiolytic species on materials? 196
6.8 References 197
Chapter 7 Concrete and Cement Materials under Irradiation 201
Pascal Bouniol
7.1 Introduction 201
7.2 Radiation shielding concrete 202
7.2.1 Overview 202
7.2.2 Effects of irradiation on the cement matrix 203
7.2.3 Effects of irradiation on aggregates 204
7.2.4 Prediction of concrete damage 206
7.3 Waste conditioning matrices 207
7.3.1 Overview 207
7.3.2 Radiolysis of the cement matrix 207
7.3.3 Phenomenological couplings 210
7.4 Conclusion 211
7.5 References 212
Chapter 8 Organic Materials 215
Emmanuel Balanzat and Muriel Ferry
8.1 Introduction 215
8.2 Technological context 217
8.2.1 Organic materials of the nuclear industry 217
8.2.2 Polymers in the reactor building 220
8.2.3 Nuclear waste 222
8.3 Radiation exposure 224
8.3.1 The LET effect 224
8.3.2 β/γ irradiation 225
8.3.3 α irradiation 225
8.3.4 Thermal neutrons 227
8.3.5 Other projectiles 227
8.4 Irradiated polymers: phenomenology 228
8.4.1 Resistance of polymers to irradiation 228
8.4.2 Changes induced by irradiation 230
8.5 Radiolysis in anoxic polymers: fundamental effects 231
8.5.1 Polymer radiolysis: introduction 231
8.5.2 A textbook case: polyethylene 233
8.6 The radio-oxidation of polymers 236
8.6.1 Mechanism of radio-oxidation 236
8.6.2 Chemical and physical influences of the dose rate 239
8.6.3 α irradiation 241
8.7 Conclusion and perspectives 243
8.8 References 243
Chapter 9 Irradiation Tools 251
Serge Bouffard and Nathalie Moncoffre
9.1 Why experiment with accelerators? 251
9.2 Irradiation conditions in nuclear energy 252
9.2.1 Characteristics of these particles 252
9.2.2 How is irradiation simulated in a nuclear environment? 253
9.3 Tools for simulation 256
9.3.1 Research reactors 256
9.3.2 Accelerators 258
9.3.3 Use of radioactive elements 264
9.4 Some major irradiation research centers 264
9.5 Conclusion 267
9.6 References 267
Chapter 10 Characterization of Irradiation Damage 269
Aurélie Gentils, Stéphanie Jublot-Leclerc and Patrick Simon
10.1 Introduction 269
10.2 Characterization of point defects 270
10.2.1 Positron annihilation spectroscopy 270
10.2.2 Raman scattering 271
10.2.3 Other techniques 274
10.3 Characterization of the global disorder and elastic strain 275
10.3.1 Raman spectroscopy 275
10.3.2 Ion beam analysis 277
10.3.3 X-ray diffraction 280
10.4 Imaging of extended defects and cavities 282
10.5 Elemental analysis 284
10.6 In situ microstructural characterization of materials subjected to irradiation 286
10.7 Conclusion and perspectives 288
10.8 References 289
List of Authors 293
Index 295
Serge Bouffard is a retired Research Director for the CEA and has devoted his career to the study of the interaction of particles with materials and the mechanisms of defect creation. He is the man behind EMIR: the French national network of accelerators for the study of materials under irradiation.
Nathalie Moncoffre is a Research Director at the CNRS, specializing in the aging of nuclear materials. In particular, she has studied the behavior of fuel, metallic alloys, absorbers and graphite under irradiation. She is the manager at the EMIR&A: the French national network of accelerators for irradiation and analysis of molecules and materials.
Date de parution : 01-2024
