Virus-Induced Immunosuppression, Softcover reprint of the original 1st ed. 1989 Infectious Agents and Pathogenesis Series

It is now widely acknowledged that at the beginning of this century Claude von Pirquet first pointed out that a viral disease, i. e. , measles, resulted in an anergy or depression of preexisting immune response, namely, delayed continuous hypersensitivity to PPD derived from Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Thereafter ob­ servations that viral infections may result in immunosuppression have been recorded by many clinicians and infectious disease investigators for six or seven decades. Nevertheless, despite sporadic reports that infectious diseases caused by viruses may result in either transient or prolonged immunodepression, investigation of this phenomenon languished until the mid-1960s, when it was pointed out that a number of experimental retroviral infections of mice with tumor viruses may result in marked immunosuppression. However, it was not until the recognition of the new epidemic of acquired immunodeficiency syn­ drome (AIDS) caused by the human immunodeficiency virus and related vi­ ruses that acquired immunodeficiencies associated with virus infection became general knowledge among biomedical investigators as well as the lay public. A number of reviews published during the past decade or so pointed out that numerous viruses may affect humoral and cellular immune responses. Furthermore, expanding knowledge about the nature and mechanisms of both humoral and cellular immunity and pathogenesis of viral infections has pro­ vided clinical and experimental models for investigating in depth how and why viruses of man and animals profoundly affect immune responses.

1. Viruses and Immunosuppression: General Comments.- 1. History.- 2. Antiviral Defenses.- 2.1. Antibodies.- 2.2. Cellular Immunity.- 2.3. Nonspecific Soluble Factors.- 3. Mechanisms of Immune Suppression by Viruses.- 3.1. Infection of Lymphoid Cells.- 3.2. Activation of Suppressor Cells.- 3.3. Suppressor Factors.- 3.4. Other Mechanisms Effecting Virus-Induced Immune Suppression.- 4. Factors That Might Influence Virus-Induced Immune Suppression.- 4.1. Age.- 4.2. Genetics.- 4.3. Presence of Other Infections and Diseases.- 4.4. Environment.- 5. Virus-Specific versus Generalized Immunosuppression.- 6. How Immunosuppression Can Affect Pathogenesis.- References.- 2. Immunomodulation by Hepatitis B and Related Viruses.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Basic Properties of Human Hepatitis B and Related Viruses.- 3. Immunopathologic Sequelae of Hepatitis B Virus Infection.- 4. Interaction of Hepatitis B Virus with the Immune System.- 4.1. Antibody Production.- 4.2. T Lymphocytes.- 4.3. Macrophages.- 4.4. Natural Killer Cells.- 4.5. Soluble Factors.- 5. Significance of Hepatitis B Virus-Induced Immunomodulation in Pathogenesis.- References.- 3. Papovaviruses.- 1. General Characteristics of the Viruses.- 2. Interactions with the Immune System.- 2.1. Papillomaviruses.- 2.2. Polyomaviruses.- 3. Conclusion.- References.- 4. Adenoviruses.- 1. Adenoviruses: Basic Properties.- 2. Immune Responses to Adenovirus.- 2.1. Antibody Responses to Natural Infection in the Normal Host.- 2.2. Humoral and Local Antibody Responses to AdenovirusVaccines.- 2.3. Natural Infection in the ImmunosuppressedHost: Clinical Aspects.- 3. Immunosuppressive Effects of Adenoviruses.- 3.1. Modulation of T-Cell Number and Function.- 3.2. Modulation of Macrophage Function.- 3.3. Modulation of NK Cells and/or ADCC.- 3.4. Modulation of Soluble Factors.- 3.5. Suppression of Antibody Production.- 4. Viral Replication within the Immune System.- 5. Significance.- References.- 5. Herpes Simple.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Basic Properties.- 2.1. Virion Structure.- 2.2. Replicative Cycle.- 3. Modulation of Immune Responses by Herpesvirus.- 3.1. Antibody Production.- 3.2. T Lymphocytes.- 3.3. Macrophages.- 3.4. NK Cells.- 3.5. Other Cells.- 3.6. Soluble Factors.- 4. Mechanism(s) of Immunosuppression.- 5. Immunomodulation and Pathogenesis.- 5.1. Immunity and the Establishment/Maintenance of Latency.- 5.2. Immunity and Recurrent Disease.- References.- 6. Human Cytomegalovirus.- 1. Introduction.- 1.1. Type Strains of Human Cytomegalovirus.- 1.2. Properties of the Virus.- 2. Infection.- 2.1. Congenital.- 2.2. Perinatal.- 2.3. HCMV Mononucleosis.- 2.4. Immunocompromised Hosts.- 3. Antigens of HCMV.- 3.1. Physical and Biochemical Analysis.- 3.2. Immunologic Analysis.- 4. Host Antibody Response against HCMV.- 4.1. Complement-Fixing Antibodies.- 4.2. IgG Subclasses.- 4.3. Immunoprecipitation—Immunoblot Analysis.- 4.4. Secretory IgA.- 4.5. IgE Antibody.- 4.6. Neutralizing Antibody.- 4.7. Immune Complexes.- 4.8. Cytolytic Antibody.- 5. Lymphocyte Blastogenic Response.- 6. Natural Killer Cell Activity.- 6.1. In Vitro Assay.- 6.2. Clinical Studies.- 6.3. Genetic Influence on the Murine NK-Cell Response.- 7. Antibody-Dependent Cell-Mediated Cytotoxicity.- 8. HLA-Restricted Cytotoxic T-Cell Activity.- 9. Interaction of HCMV with Leukocytes.- 9.1. T-Cell Subset Ratios.- 9.2. HCMV Infection of Leukocytes.- 9.3. Immune Suppression in HCMV Mononucleosis.- 10. Perspective.- References.- 7. Epstein — Barr Virus-Induced Immune Deficiency.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Properties of Epstein-Barr Virus.- 3. Modulation of Immunity by EBV.- 3.1. Antibody Production during Acute EBV Infection.- 3.2. T-Lymphocyte Function during Acute Infectious Mononucleosis.- 4. Other Mechanisms of EBV-Induced  mmunosuppression.- 5. Clinical Significance of EBV-Induced Immunomodulation in Viral Pathogenesis of Diseases in Males with XLP.- 6. Summary.- References.- 8. Immunosuppression by Bovine Herpesvirus 1 and Other Selected Herpesviruses.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Bovine Herpesvirus.- 2.1. Virology.- 2.2. Immunology.- 2.3. Immunosuppression.- 2.4. Summary.- 3. Other Herpesviruses.- 3.1. Equine Herpesviruses.- 3.2. Pseudorabies Virus.- 3.3. Avian Herpesviruses.- 3.4. Rodent Herpesviruses.- 3.5. Varicella Zoster.- References.- 9. Poxviruses.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Properties of Poxviruses.- 2.1. Physical Characteristics.- 2.2. Genetics.- 2.3. Classification.- 2.4. Host Range.- 2.5. Tumor Formation.- 3. Effects of Poxviruses on Immune Function.- 3.1. Smallpox.- 3.2. Vaccinia.- 3.3. Leporipoxviruses.- 3.4. Effects on the Immune System of Malignant Rabbit Fibroma Virus.- 3.5. Malignant Rabbit Fibroma Virus Replication within the Cells of the Immune System.- 4. Role of Immunosuppression in the Pathogenesis of Poxvirus Infection.- 4.1. Orthopoxviruses.- 4.2. Leporipoxviruses.- References.- 10. Reovirus-Induced Immunosuppression.- 1. Introduction.- 1.1. Basic Properties of Reoviruses.- 1.2. Clinical Manifestations Associated with Reovirus Infections.- 2. Modulation of Immunity by Reoviruses.- 2.1. Interaction of Reoviruses with Cells of the Immune System.- 2.2. Suppression of Immune Responsiveness by Reoviruses.- 3. Significance of Virus-Induced Immunomodulation in Viral Pathogenesis.- References.- 11. Immunosuppression by Avian Infectious Bursal Disease Virus and Mouse Heptatitis Virus.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Immunosuppression by Avian Infectious Bursal Disease Virus.- 2.1. A Characterization of the Virus and the Disease.- 2.2. Influence on Circulating B and T Lymphocytes.- 2.3. Influence on Antibody Production.- 2.4. Influence on Cellular Immune Functions.- 2.5. Influence on Soluble Immune Factors.- 2.6. Mechanism of Immunosuppression.- 3. Immunosuppression by Mouse Hepatitis Virus.- 3.1. Biology of the Virus.- 3.2. Pathogenesis of Mouse Coronaviruses.- 3.3. MHV3-Induced Immunosuppression.- 3.4. Immune Functions of MHV3-Infected Mice.- 3.5. Mechanism of Immunosuppression.- 4. Summary.- References.- 12. Picornavirus-Induced Immunosuppression.- 1. Introduction.- 1.1. Basic Properties of Picornaviruses.- 1.2. Clinical Manifestations Associated with Picornavirus Infections.- 2. Modulation of Immunity by Picornaviruses.- 2.1. Antibody Production.- 2.2. Lymphocytes.- 2.3. Phagocytic Cells.- 2.4. Interferon System.- 3. Experimental Infection of Mice with Coxsackievirus B-3.- 4. Mechanisms of Immunosuppression.- 5. Significance of Virus-Induced Immunomodulation in Viral Pathogenesis.- References.- 13. Arenaviruses.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Basic Properties of the Viruses.- 2.1. Morphology.- 2.2. Biochemical Properties.- 2.3. Pathogenesis.- 3. Modulation of Immunity.- 3.1. Antibody Production.- 3.2. T Lymphocytes.- 3.3. Macrophages.- 3.4. Natural Killer Cells and Soluble Factors.- 4. Mechanisms of Viral Suppression.- 5. Significance of Virus-Induced Modulation in ViralPathogenesis.- References.- 14. Togavirus-Induced Immunosuppression.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Basic Properties of the Viruses.- 3. Antigenic Relationships.- 4. Host-Defense Mechanisms.- 4.1. Antibodies.- 4.2. Cell-Mediated Immune Response.- 5. Interactions with Cells of the Immune System.- 5.1. Lymphoid Tissues.- 5.2. Blood Leukocytes.- 5.3. Macrophages.- 5.4. Soluble Factors.- 6. Suppression of Immune Responses.- 6.1. Immunosuppression by Togaviruses.- 6.2. Immunosuppression by Rubella Virus.- 6.3. Immunosuppression by LDV.- 6.4. Immunosuppression by Dengue Virus.- 7. Adverse Effects of Immunosuppression.- 8. Conclusion.- References.- 15. Rhabdoviruses: Effect of Vesicular Stomatitis Virus Infection on the Development and Regulation of Cell-Mediated and Humoral Immune Responses.- 1. Basic Properties of Vesicular Stomatitis Virus.- 2. Modulation of Host-Immune Responses by Vesicular Stomatitis Virus.- 2.1. Introduction.- 2.2. Interferon and Anti-VSV Activity.- 2.3. Effect of VSV Infection on Macrophage Activation.- 2.4. Effect of VSV Infection on T- and B-Cell-Mediated Immune Response in Vivo.- 2.5. Effect of VSV Infection in Vitro.- References.- 16. Virus-Induced Immunosuppression: Influenza Virus.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Basic Properties of the Virus.- 3. Modulation of Immunity by the Virus.- 3.1. Antibody Production.- 3.2. T Lymphocytes.- 3.3. Macrophages.- 3.4. Natural Killer Cells and ADCC.- 3.5. Miscellaneous Cells.- 3.6. Soluble Factors.- 4. Mechanisms of Immunosuppression.- 4.1. Viral Replication within the Immune System.- 4.2. Potentially Immunosuppressive Virus-Induced Host Responses.- 5. Significance of Virus-Induced Immunomodulation in Viral Pathogenesis.- 5.1. Immunologic Participation in Observed Pathology.- 5.2. Genetic Contributions.- 5.3. Immunofocusing and the Selectivity of Immunomodulation.- References.- 17. Paramyxoviruses.- 1. Basic Properties of Viruses.- 1.1. Classification.- 1.2. Molecular Structure.- 1.3. Replication of Paramyxoviruses.- 2. Modulation of Immunity by the Viruses.- 2.1. Parainfluenza and Respiratory Syncytial Viruses.- 2.2. Mumps Virus.- 3. Immune Reactivity and Paramyxoviruses.- 4. Immunopathogenesis.- 5. Mechanisms of Immunosuppression.- References.- 18. Immunosuppression by Measles Virus.- 1. Introduction.- 1.1. Characteristics and Basic Properties of Measles Virus.- 1.2. Human Pathology Associated with Measles Virus Infection.- 2. Modulation of Adaptive (Immune) and Nonadaptive (Natural) Responses by Measles Virus.- 2.1. Infection of Human Leukocytes by Measles Virus.- 2.2. Modulation of Antibody Production by Measles Virus.- 2.3. Modulation of Function of Amplifying T cell and Effector T Cell by Measles Virus.- 2.4. Modulation of Natural Killer Cell Activity by Measles Virus.- 3. Mechanisms of Immunosuppression and Significance of Virus-Induced Immunosuppression in Viral Pathogenesis.- References.- 19. Avian Retroviruses.- 1. Basic Properties of the Viruses.- 1.1. Avian Sarcoma—Leukosis Complex.- 1.2. Reticuloendotheliosis Viruses.- 2. Modulation of the Immune Response.- 2.1. Humoral Responses.- 2.2. Cellular Responses.- 3. Mechanisms of Immunosuppression.- 4. Significance of Immunomodulation in Viral Pathogenesis.- References.- 20. Nonhuman Mammalian Retroviruses.- 1. Basic Properties.- 2. Modulation of Immunity by Retroviruses.- 2.1. Introduction.- 2.2. Murine Leukemia/Sarcoma Viruses.- 2.3. Feline Retroviruses.- 2.4. Bovine Retroviruses.- 2.5. Ovine/Caprine Retroviruses.- 2.6. Equine Retroviruses.- 2.7. Nonhuman Primate Retroviruses.- 3. Mechanisms of Immunosuppression.- 3.1. General.- 3.2. Viral Replication within Cells of the Immune System.- 3.3. Virion-Associated Immunosuppressive Products.- 3.4. Suppressor Cells.- 3.5. Role of Nonviral Soluble Factors.- 4. Significance of Virus-Induced Immunosuppression.- 5. Conclusions.- References.- 21. Implications for Immunotherapy of Viral Infections.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Immunostimulatory Agents.- 2.1. Bacteria and Their Products as Immunomodulators.- 2.2. Products of the Immune System.- 2.3. Antiviral Immunostimulatory Drugs.- 3. Conclusions.- References.- 22. Conclusions and Prospects.- 1. Phenomenology.- 2. Pathophysiology.- 3. Biologic Significance.- 4. Effects on the Evolution of the Inducing Infection.- 5. Effects on Pathogenesis by the Inducing Virus.- 6. Effects on Resistance to Other Infections.- 7. Effects on Resistance to Tumors.- 8. Implications for Therapy of Viral Infections.- 9. Possible Role of Viruses in the Genesis of Idiopathic Immune Deficiencies.- References.