The Environmental Management of Low-Grade Fuels Energy and Infrastructure Set Series

The negative environmental impacts of energy use, particularly soil and water pollution, continue to present serious policy dilemmas. The release of emissions and effluents and the build-up of solid waste throughout the fuel cycle have disruptive effects on natural habitats and human health. Further, fuel combustion can result in the emission of carbon dioxide, ozone, methane and nitrogen dioxide ? the 'greenhouse gases' which have been linked to climate change. The safe and sustainable use of energy has become an important issue in the wider environmental debate.

In this report, researchers from the Stockholm Environment Institute explore the issues raised by the use of low-grade fuels such as peat, wood, biomass, lignite, oil shale and municipal and industrial wastes. The present strategies and policy options for all stages of the process, from mining and transport to processing and combustion.

With those who would like to learn more about these fuels in mind, the material is presented clearly, and discussions of environmental protection measures are given in table form throughout the ease of reference. A directory of environmental guidelines, regulations and standards is given in an appendix. While a high calorific value fuels remain the most significant source of energy in many countries, economic and other constraints on the use of these fuels may result in more nations turning to low-grade sources of energy to operate their industrial or transportation sectors. The greater potential for environmental degradation that accompanies the use of low-grade fuels means that it is crucial that environmentally sound methods for their management, such as those presented here, be more widely available. The Environmental Management of Low-Grade Fuels will be valuable for industry specialists, policy makers, students and all who are concerned with the life cycle of these materials. Mary MacDonald is an affiliated scientist, and Michael Chadwick is a former director, at the Stockholm Environment Institute. Garegin Aslanian is a senior associate with the Institute for High Temperature Research in Moscow. Originally published in 1996

Table of Contents
List of Figures and Tables
Preface
Acknowledgements
Foreword
Chapter 1
Overview
A definition of Low-grade Fuels
Factors Contributing to Calorific Value
Environmental Implications of Calorific Value
Low-grade Fuels Considered
Characteristics of Low-grade Fuels
Peat
Coal
Oil Shale
Wood
Biomass other than Wood
Municipal Solid Waste
Global Use of Low-grade Fuels
Peat
Lignite
Oil Shale
Wood
Biomass other than Wood
Differences in Low-grade Fuel Use between Developed and Developing Countries
Wood
Lignite
Peat
Oil Shale
Current Application of Low-grade Fuels
Combustion
Gasification
Liquefaction
Environmental Impacts of Low-grade Fuel Use
The Fuel Cycle
Scale of Operation
Environmental Standards
Conservation
Technology Transfer
Environmental Impacts Associated with Individual
Low-grade Fuels
Chapter 2
Alternative Uses of Low-grade Fuels
Chemical Feedstocks
Chemical Products from Peat
Chemical Feedstocks from Lignite
Chemical Feedstocks from Oil Shale
Chemical Products from Wood
The Environmental Impacts Associated with the Production of Chemical Feedstocks from Low-grade Fuels
Mining or Gaining for Chemical Feedstock Production
Transportation
Heating and Cooling
Extraction
Wastewater Treatment
Fertilizers and Soil Amendments from Low-grade Fuels
Sphagnum Peat Moss and Peat-derived Fertilizers
Nerosine
Liming with Powdered Oil Shale Ash
Gypsum
Absorbent Biofilters
Building Materials
Landfill
Chapter 3
Global Resources and Reserves of Low-grade Fuels
Low-grade Coals
Peat
Oil Shale
Wood
Biomass other than Wood
Municipal, Industrial and Mining Wastes
Chapter 4
Environmental Management during the Mining of Low-grade Fuels
Mining of Lignite
Destruction of Ground Cover
Worker Health and Safety
Social Impacts of Lignite Mining
Water Quality and Soil Fertility
Interaction with Groundwater
Site Restoration
Oil Shale Mining
Acidic Run-off
Land Restoration
Worker Health and Safety during Oil Shale Mining
Social Impacts of Oil Shale Mining
Harvesting of Peat
Impacts on the Physical Environment due to Peat Harvesting
Worker Health and Safety during Peat Harvest
Social Impacts of Peat Harvesting
Harvesting or Collecting of Wood
Impacts to the Physical Environment due to Harvesting of Wood
Collection of Biomass other than Wood
Municipal, Industrial and Mining Wastes
Chapter 5
Environmental Management of the Transport of Low-grade Fuels
Environmental Impacts and Low-grade Fuel Transport
Storage of Low-grade Fuels
Impacts to the Physical Environment due to the Transport of Low-grade Fuels
Disruption to Residents along Transport Routes
Health Risks of Low-grade Fuel Transport
Worker Health and Safety during Low-grade Fuel Transport
Chapter 6
Environmental Management During Processing and Upgrading of Low-grade Fuels
Peat Processing
Peat Drying and Dewatering
Carbonization
Compaction
Lignite Upgrading
Homogenization
Cleaning
Moisture Removal and Thermal Upgrading
Drying and Thermal Upgrading
Briquetting
Environmental Implications of Lignite Processing and Upgrading
Oil Shale Processing and Upgrading
Surface Retorting
In Situ Retorting
Shale Oil Upgrading
Water Quality
Environmental Management During Oil Shale
Processing and Upgrading
Wood Processing
Large-scale Charcoal Making
Mobility of Carbonization Technology
Environmental Impacts of Charcoal Manufacture
Briquetting of Biomass, Municipal Waste and Mining Waste
Treatment and Processing of Liquid Wastes
Chapter 7
Environmental Management and Low-grade Fuel Conversion
Low-grade Fuel Conversion Technologies
Stoves for Domestic Use of Low-grade Fuels
Fixed Bed Combustion
Fluidized Bed Combustion
Circulating Fluidized Bed Combustion
Pressurized Fluidized Bed Combustion
Low-grade Fuel Gasification
Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle
Fuel Pyrolysis
On Overview of Pollutant Formation and Control
Health Risks of Low-grade Fuel Combustion
Particulates
Environmental Aspects of Particulates
Control of Particulate Matter
Carbon Dioxide
Environmental Aspects of CO2
Environmental Protection and CO2
C02 Production and Low-grade Fuels
Sulphur Oxides
Environmental Aspects of SOx
Control Mechanisms for SOx
SOx Production and Low-grade Fuels
Sulphur Recovery using Wet Processes
Dry alkali Injection into the Combustion Chamber
Dry Absorption
Use of Metal Oxides
Regenerable Processes
Nitrogen Oxides
Environmental Aspects of NOx
Control Mechanisms for NOx
NOx and Low-grade Fuels
Suppression of NOx during Combustion
Flue Gas Treatment for NOx Removal
Halogens
Environmental Aspects of Halogens
Control of Halogens during Combustion
Halogens and Low-grade Fuels
Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons
Environmental Aspects of PAHs
Control of PAHs
Low-grade Fuels and PAHs
Solid Wastes
Environmental Aspects of Solid Waste
Environmental Protection Measures for Solid Wastes
Solid Waste and Low-grade Fuels
Gaseous Trace Elements
Chapter 8
Low-grade Fuel Use Efficiency and Conservation
Energy Conservation
Developing a Conservation Plan
Energy-efficient Power Production and Low-grade Fuels
Energy Process Improvement
Boiler Improvement
Investment in a New Energy System
Waste Heat Recovery
Chapter 9
The Transfer of Environmentally Sound Technology for Low-grade Fuel Use
Towards a Definition of Technology Transfer
Controversy Surrounding Technology Transfer
New and Expensive versus Older and Cheaper
The Social Impacts of Technology
Indigenous Technology
Effective Technology Transfer
Methods and Mechanisms of Technology Transfer
Constraints to Technology Transfer
Approaches to Environmentally Sound Technology Transfer
Business Transaction between Companies
Aid Agency Funding
Enforcement of Global Standards
Real Costing
Trust Funds
Chapter 10
Costs Considerations and Low-grade Fuel Use
Industry or Internal Costs
External Costs
Environmental Loads
Health Costs
Costs of Control Technology
Technology Cost Estimates
Cost Estimation Methodology
Other Methodological Approaches
Pollution Abatement Options
Chapter 11
Integrated Planning and Environmental Management of Low-grade Fuels
Integrated Energy Planning
Environmental Impacts and Integrated Energy Planning
Energy Sector Indicators of Environmental Quality
Energy Intensity
Environmental Impact Assessment
Conducting on EIA
Comparing Alternatives
Modelling Approaches
Appendix A
Environmental Legislation for Low-grade Fuels
Environmental Policy
Guidelines, Regulations and Standards
Environmental Guidelines
Regulations
Standards
Low-grade Fuel Regulations
Glossary
Index