Drugs, Neurotransmitters, and Behavior, Softcover reprint of the original 1st ed. 1977 Handbook of Psychopharmacology Series

The first six volumes of the Handbook reviewed basic neuropharmacology, drawing on expertise in biochemistry, pharmacology and electrophysiology. The next three volumes focus attention on the functional importance of these basic neuropharmacological mechanisms for normal behavior. In order to study this interface in the intact functioning organism, appropriate methods for describing and quantifying behavior must be developed. The past twenty years have witnessed a revolution in the study of behavior which has taken us away from the often fruitless theoretical arguments to descriptive behaviorism. Technical achievements in the design of apparatus and the recording of behavior played an important role in these and the resultant behavioral methods have been accepted and developments, found useful in studying the effects of drugs. The development of psycho­ pharmacology as a discipline owes as much to these behavioral methods as it does to the basic neuropharmacological techniques pioneered for in vitro studies. In the first section of Volume 7, an effort has been made to provide reviews both of theory and practice in behavioral science. Milner's chapter deals with the concept of motivation in a theoretical framework. By contrast, the chapters by Morse et ai. and Dews and DeWeese provide a more descriptive view of the various ways in which aversive stimuli control behavior and the importance of schedules of reinforcement in determining the profile of responding in the animal. The equal importance of observational behav­ ioral methods is well illustrated by Mackintosh et ai.

1 The Role of Prefrontal Cortex in Intracranial Self-Stimulation: A Case History of Anatomical Localization of Motivational Substrates.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Pathways of Intracranial Self-Stimulation: A Three-Step Procedure for Specification.- 2.1. Mapping.- 2.2. Lesions at ICSS Sites.- 2.3. Brain Lesions Which Eliminate Self-Stimulation.- 2.4. Summary.- 3. Defining the Input and Output in ICSS.- 3.1. The Nature of the Wiring Diagram.- 3.2. The Definition of Input and Output.- 3.3. Anatomical Localization of Sites Eliciting Drinking by Carbachol and Angiotensin II: The Advantages of Defined Input and Output.- 3.4. Some Preliminary Attempts at Solution.- 4. The Central Role of the Frontal Cortex in ICSS.- 4.1. Initial Map of the Brainstem for ICSS: Dubious Role of the Locus Coeruleus.- 4.2. ICSS in Frontal Cortex: Medial and Sulcal Cortex.- 5. Relation of Frontal Cortex to Brainstem Self-Stimulation.- 6. Summary.- 7. References.- 2 Neuropharmacology of Reward and Punishment.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Operant Reinforcement.- 2.1. Pharmacological Evidence Implicating Norepinephrine (NE).- 2.2. Anatomical Evidence Implicating Norepinephrine.- 2.3. Self-Stimulation and Brain Dopamine.- 2.4. Intravenous Self-Administration of Drugs.- 2.5. Conclusions.- 3. Operant Punishment.- 3.1. Pharmacology.- 3.2. Effects of Benzodiazepines on Monoamine Turnover.- 3.3. Benzodiazepines and Brain Norepinephrine.- 3.4. Benzodiazepines and Brain Serotonin.- 3.5. Suppression of Behavior by Dorsal Raphe Stimulation and Reversal by Oxazepam.- 3.6. Effects of Repeated Doses of Oxazepam on Monoamine Turnover.- 3.7. Conclusions.- 4. References.- 3 The Psychopharmacology of Feeding.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Putative Neurotransmitters and Food Intake.- 2.1. Norepinephrine and Epinephrine.- 2.2. Dopamine.- 2.3. Serotonin.- 2.4. Acetylcholine.- 2.5. Other Influences.- 3. Anorectic Drugs.- 3.1. Structure-Function Relationships in Sympathomimetics.- 3.2. Epinephrine.- 3.3. Nordefrin: ?-Methylnorepinephrine.- 3.4. Phenethylamine.- 3.5. Amphetamine.- 3.6. Phentermine, Phenmetrazine, and Diethylpropion.- 3.7. Phenylpropanolamine.- 3.8. Chlorphentermine and Chloroamphetamine.- 3.9. Fenfluramine.- 3.10. Social Psychology and Anorectic Drugs.- 4. Orectic Drugs.- 4.1. Cyproheptadine.- 4.2. Tranquilizers.- 4.3. l-Dopa.- 5. References.- 4 The Neuroanatomy and Neuropharmacology of Drinking.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Thirst Receptors.- 3. The Neuroanatomy of Thirst.- 3.1. Hypothalamus.- 3.2. Limbic System and Midbrain.- 4. The Neuropharmacology of Thirst.- 4.1. Cholinergic Systems.- 4.2. Angiotensin.- 4.3. Adrenergic Systems.- 4.4. Other Dipsogenic Substances.- 5. Defense of Body Fluids.- 6. References.- 5 Pharmacological and Hormonal Control of Reproductive behavior.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Ontogeny of Sexual Behavior.- 2.1. Hormones and Development of Sexual Behavior: Sexual Dimorphism.- 2.2. Monoamines, Drugs, and Development of Sexual Behavior.- 3. Sexual Behavior in the Adult Subject.- 3.1. Hormonal Regulation of Sexual Behavior in the Female.- 3.2. Hormonal Regulation of Sexual Behavior in the Male.- 3.3. Effects of Psychoactive Drugs on Sexual Behavior.- 4. Parental Behavior.- 4.1. Maternal Behavior.- 4.2. Paternal (Paternalistic) Behavior.- 5. General Conclusions.- 6. References.- 6 Neuropharmacology of the Sleep-Waking Cycle.- 1. Introduction.- 2. The Sleep-Waking Cycle in the Cat.- 3. An Outline of Recent Theories of Sleep Mechanisms.- 3.1. Recent Advances in the Study of Sleep Mechanisms.- 3.2. Classical Neurophysiology of Sleep.- 3.3. “Wet Neurophysiology”.- 4. 5-Hydroxytryptamine and the Sleep-Waking Cycle.- 4.1. Increased Availability of 5-HT to Serotoninoceptive Neurons.- 4.2. Decreased Availability of 5-HT.- 5. Catecholamines and the Sleep-Waking Cycle.- 5.1. Increased Availability of Catecholamines.- 5.2. Decreased Availability of Catecholamines.- 6. Acetylcholine and the Sleep-Waking Cycle.- 6.1. Increased Availability of ACh to Cholinoceptive Neurons.- 6.2. Decreased Availability of ACh.- 6.3. Cholinergic Mechanisms Involved in Paradoxical Sleep.- 7. Pharmacological Alterations of PGO Activity.- 7.1. The Reserpine Syndrome and the PGO System.- 7.2. Pharmacology of PGO Activity.- 7.3. The PGO Method in Pharmacology.- 8. Short-Chain Fatty Acids and the Sleep-Waking Cycle.- 8.1. The Narcotic Effect.- 8.2. Mechanisms of Action.- 9. Antidepressant and Neuroleptic Drugs.- 9.1. Antidepressants.- 9.2. Neuroleptic Drugs.- 10. Hypnotics and Tranquilizing Drugs.- 10.1. Hypnotics.- 10.2. Minor Tranquilizers.- 11. Hormones and the Sleep-Waking Cycle.- 12. Drugs Acting on Protein Synthesis and the Sleep-Waking Cycle.- 12.1. Experimental Evidence.- 12.2. Impossible Interpretation.- 13. Miscellaneous Compounds.- 13.1. Putative Neurotransmitters.- 13.2. Miscellaneous Drugs.- 14. Conclusions.- 15. References.- 7 Drug-Induced Motor behavior.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Locomotor Activity.- 2.1. Drug Effects on Locomotor Activity.- 2.2. Neural Mechanisms of the Locomotor-Stimulant Action of Amphetamine.- 2.3. Roles of Transmitters Other than Dopamine in Locomotor Activity.- 2.4. Conclusions.- 3. Stereotyped Behavior.- 3.1. The Drug-Induced Stereotyped Behavior Syndrome.- 3.2. Neural Basis of Amphetamine-Induced Stereotypy.- 3.3. Roles of Transmitters Other than Dopamine in Stereotyped Behavior.- 3.4. Conclusions.- 4. Rotational Behavior.- 4.1. Drug-Induced Circling.- 4.2. Neural Mechanisms of Amphetamine-Induced Circling.- 4.3. Roles of Transmitters Other than Dopamine in Drug-Induced Circling.- 4.4. Conclusions.- 5. References.- 8 Brain Dopamine Systems and behavior.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Studies of the Dopamine Pathways and Behavior.- 2.1. Methods of Investigation.- 2.2. Unconditioned Behavior.- 2.3. Conditioned Behavior.- 3. Classical Studies of Striatal Function.- 4. A Synthesis of the Role of DA in the Nigrostriatal Tract.- 4.1. Endogenous DA Asymmetry and Sensory-Motor Coordination.- 4.2. Behavioral Nature of Amphetamine-Induced Motor Changes.- 5. An Overview of Striatal Function.- 5.1. Frontostriatal Interactions.- 5.2. How Does the Striatum Influence Motor Control?.- 5.3. Striatum and Cognitive Function.- 5.4. Nonstriatal Dopamine Systems.- 6. References.- 9 Stimulus Selection and Behavioral Inhibition.- 1. Varieties of Behavioral Inhibition.- 1.1. Habituation.- 1.2. Extinction.- 1.3. Discrimination.- 1.4. Response Suppression by Aversive Stimuli.- 2. Hypotheses about Neural Mechanisms for Behavioral Inhibition.- 2.1. Stimulus Selection.- 2.2. Decreased Activation.- 2.3. Response Inhibition.- 2.4. Summary.- 3. Psychopharmacology of Behavioral Inhibition.- 3.1. Habituation.- 3.2. Extinction.- 3.3. Discrimination.- 3.4. Response Suppression by Aversive Stimuli.- 4. Neurochemical Substrates for the Increases in Responding by Amphetamine, Cholinolytics, and Benzodiazepines.- 4.1. Amphetamine.- 4.2. Cholinolytics.- 4.3. Benzodiazepines.- 5. Mechanisms of Behavioral Inhibition.- 6. Conclusions.- 7. References.- 10 Drug Effects on Fear and Frustration: Possible Limbic Site of Action of Minor Tranquilizers.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Learning Theory Background.- 3. The Effects of the Barbiturates on Emotional Behavior.- 3.1. Rewarded Behavior.- 3.2. Passive Avoidance.- 3.3. Classical Conditioning of Fear.- 3.4. Escape Behavior.- 3.5. One-Way Active Avoidance.- 3.6. Two-Way Active Avoidance.- 3.7. Responses Elicited by Aversive Stimuli.- 3.8. Frustrative Nonreward.- 3.9. Conclusion.- 4. The Behavioral Inhibition System.- 5. The Effects of Ethanol on Emotional Behavior.- 5.1. Rewarded Behavior.- 5.2. Passive Avoidance.- 5.3. Classical Conditioning of Fear.- 5.4. Escape Behavior.- 5.5. One-Way Active Avoidance.- 5.6. Two-Way Active Avoidance.- 5.7. Responses Elicited by Aversive Stimuli.- 5.8. Frustrative Nonreward.- 5.9. Responses to Novelty.- 6. The Effects of the Benzodiazepines on Emotional Behavior.- 6.1. Rewarded Behavior.- 6.2. Passive Avoidance.- 6.3. Classical Conditioning of Fear.- 6.4. Escape Behavior.- 6.5. One-Way Active Avoidance.- 6.6. Two-Way Active Avoidance.- 6.7. Responses Elicited by Aversive Stimuli.- 6.8. Frustrative Nonreward.- 6.9. Responses to Novelty.- 7. The Behavioral Effects of the Minor Tranquilizers: An Overview.- 7.1. Rewarded Behavior.- 7.2. Passive Avoidance.- 7.3. Classical Conditioning of Fear.- 7.4. Escape Behavior.- 7.5. One-Way Active Avoidance.- 7.6. Two-Way Active Avoidance.- 7.7. Responses Elicited by Aversive Stimuli.- 7.8. Frustrative Nonreward.- 7.9. Responses to Novelty.- 8. The Mode of Action of the Minor Tranquilizers in the Central Nervous System: A Hypothesis.- 8.1. The Hippocampal Theta Rhythm.- 8.2. Testing the Frequency-Specific Hypothesis.- 8.3. The Pharmacology of the Theta-Driving Curve.- 9. Conclusions.- 10. References.- 11 Modulation of Learning and Memory: Effects of Drugs Influencing Neurotransmitters.- 1. Introduction.- 1.1. Preliminary Considerations.- 2. Acetylcholine.- 2.1. Physostigmine (Eserine).- 2.2. Nicotine.- 2.3. Anticholinergic Agents.- 3. Catecholamines.- 3.1. Sympathomimetics.- 3.2. Antiadrenergic Agents.- 4. ECS, Protein-Synthesis Inhibition, and CA.- 5. Serotonin (5-Hydroxytryptamine, 5-HT).- 6. Neurotransmitter Interactions.- 7. Conclusions.- 8. References.