Bacterial Adhesion, Softcover reprint of the original 1st ed. 1985 Mechanisms and Physiological Significance

Study of the phenomena of bacterial adhesion to surfaces has accelerated considerably over the past 10 to 15 years. During this period, microbiologists have become increasingly aware that attachment to a substratum influences considerably the activities and structures of microbial cells. Moreover, in many cases attached communities of cells have important effects on their substratum and the surrounding environment. Such phenomena are now known to be important in plant and animal hosts, water and soil ecosystems, and man-made structures and industrial processes. Much work on microbial adhesion in the early 1970s was descriptive. Those studies were important for detecting and describing the phenomena of bacterial adhesion to substrata in various environments; the findings have been presented in numerous recently published, excellent books and reviews. In some studies, attempts were made to elucidate some funda­ mental principles controlling adhesion processes in different environments containing a variety of microorganisms. Common threads have been observed occasionally in different studies. Taken as a whole, however, the information has revealed that many disparate factors are involved in adhesion processes. Whether a particular microorganism can adhere to a certain substratum depends on the properties of the microbial strain itself and on charac­ teristics of the substratum and of the environment.

I. Introduction and Description of Surfaces.- 1 Phenomena of Bacterial Adhesion.- 1. The Sessile Mode of Bacterial Growth.- 1.1. Bacterial Glycocalyx in Vivo and in Vitro.- 1.2. Microcolony Formation by Adherent Bacteria.- 1.3. Consortium Formation by Adherent Bacteria.- 1.4. Biofilm Predominance in Aquatic Systems.- 1.5. Physiology of Biofilm Populations.- 1.6. Removal of Biofilms.- 1.7. Control of Biofilm Formation.- 2. Bacterial Adhesion to Inert Medical Prostheses.- 2.1. Biofilm Formation and Structure.- 2.2. Pathogenic Consequences of Biofilm Development.- 2.3. Resistance of Biofilm Populations to Host Defense Factors and to Antibacterial Chemotherapy.- 3. Autochthonous Bacterial Populations in Animal Systems.- 3.1. Bacterial Colonization of Digesta.- 3.2. Bacterial Colonization of Digestive Systems.- 3.3. Autochthonous “Barrier” Populations as a Protection from Disease.- 3.4. Disease Prevention by the Manipulation of Bacterial Barrier Populations.- 4. Pathogenic Bacterial Adhesion in Animal Systems.- 4.1. Bacterial Pili and Surface Proteins as Specific Ligands.- 4.2. Bacterial Glycocalyx as a Ligand and as a Bacterial Defense Mechanism.- 4.3. Role of Bacterial Surface Changes in the Microbial Ecology of Bacterial Infections.- 5. Summary.- References.- 2 Bacterial Cell Walls and Surfaces.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Gram-Positive Bacteria.- 2.1. Peptidoglycan.- 2.2. Secondary Cell Wall Polymers.- 2.3. Proteins.- 2.4. Cell Wall-Associated Polymers.- 2.5. Turnover and Environmentally Induced Variation in Cell Wall Polymers.- 3. Gram-Negative Bacteria.- 3.1. The Periplasmic Space.- 3.2. Peptidoglycan.- 3.3. The Outer Cell Membrane.- 3.4. Extracellular Components and Glycocalyx.- 3.5. Turnover and Cell Wall Variation.- 4. Surface Appendages.- 4.1. Flagella.- 4.2. Sex Pili and Fimbriae.- 4.3. Prosthecae.- 5. Probing the Bacterial Cell Surface.- 5.1. Surface Charge of Bacterial Cells.- 5.2. Hydrophilic and Hydrophobic Properties of Bacterial Cells.- 5.3. Immunoglobulins, Lectins, and Phages as Specific Surface Probes.- 6. Functional Aspects of Bacterial Cell Walls and Surfaces.- References.- 3 Animal Cell Surface Membranes.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Molecular Constituents.- 2.1. Lipids.- 2.2. Proteins and Glycoproteins.- 3. Organization of Cell Membrane Constituents.- 3.1. Integral Membrane Constituents.- 3.2. Peripheral Membrane Components.- 3.3. Glycoproteins of the Cell Coat.- 4. Cell Surface Receptors.- 4.1. General Concepts.- 4.2. Binding Studies.- 4.3. Expression of Receptors on Cell Surfaces.- 4.4. Characterization of Cell Surface Receptors.- 4.5. Animal Cell Surface Receptors in Bacterial Adhesion.- References.- 4 Characteristics of Plant Surfaces.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Material Common to All Epidermal Cell Walls: The Primary Cell Wall.- 2.1. Microfibrillar Phase.- 2.2. Matrix Phase.- 2.3. Hydroxyproline-Rich Glycoproteins.- 2.4. Interpolymeric Linkages.- 3. Superficial Coverings of Plants.- 3.1. Mucilages.- 3.2. Cutins.- 3.3. Suberin-Complex.- 3.4. Waxes.- 4. Plant Defense: Polymers Synthesized in Response to Damage.- 4.1. Preformed Defensive Components.- 4.2. Postformed Defensive Components.- 5. Summary.- References.- 5 The Properties of Nonbiological Surfaces and Their Characterization.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Surface Energy and Contact Angle.- 2.1. Theoretical Treatments of Thermodynamic Parameters.- 2.2. Techniques.- 3. Electrokinetic Properties and Measurements.- 3.1. Zeta Potentials.- 3.2. Surface Charge Densities.- 3.3. Streaming Measurements.- 3.4. Conducting Solids and Liquids.- 3.5. Surface Films.- 4. Surface Chemical Analysis.- 5. Adsorption and Contamination.- 6. Overview.- References.- II. Mechanisms of Adhesion.- 6 Mechanisms of Bacterial Adhesion at Solid-Water Interfaces.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Transport of Bacteria to Surfaces.- 2.1. Conditions in the Aqueous Phase.- 2.2. Transport Mechanisms.- 3. Reversible Adhesion.- 3.1. Long-Range Forces.- 3.2. Some Consequences of Reversible Adhesion.- 4. Irreversible Adhesion.- 4.1. Polymer Bridging.- 4.2. Short-Range Forces.- 4.3. Adhesion Strength.- 4.4. Passive versus Active Adhesion.- 4.5. Surface Energy Approach to Adhesion.- 4.6. Colloid Stability versus Surface Energy Approaches.- 4.7. Adsorption Isotherms.- 4.8. Conditioning Films.- 5. Temporary Adhesion in Gliding Bacteria.- 6. Role of Polymers.- 6.1. Polymers as Adhesives.- 6.2. Polymers as Dispersants.- 6.3. Polymer Composition.- 6.4. Genetic Aspects of Polymer Production.- 7. Conclusions.- References.- 7 Mechanisms of Bacterial Adhesion at Gas-Liquid Interfaces.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Characterization of Natural Gas-Liquid Interfaces.- 2.1. Surface Microlayers of Aquatic Systems.- 2.2. Gas Bubbles in Aquatic Systems—Adsubble Processes.- 2.3. Terrestrial Systems.- 3. Bacterial Nutritional and Cell Surface Properties Which Affect Adhesion.- 3.1. Survival Tactics of Bacteria.- 3.2. The Influence of Surface Properties of Bacteria on Their Distribution at the Air-Water Interface.- 4. Mechanisms of Bacterial Adhesion at Gas-Liquid Inferfaces.- 4.1. Transport and Accumulation Processes.- 4.2. Field Observations on Selective Enrichments.- 4.3. Experiments Investigating the Relationship between Selective Enrichments and Bacterial Surface Characteristics.- 4.4. Model System Experiments to Determine Physicochemical Properties.- 5. Effects of Bacterial Enrichment at the Air-Water Interface.- 5.1. Bacterial Activity.- 5.2. Possible Food Chains.- 6. Concluding Remarks.- References.- 8 Mechanisms of Adhesion to Clays, with Reference to Soil Systems.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Properties of Soil Particles.- 2.1. Inorganic Components.- 2.2. Aggregates.- 2.3. Organic Components.- 3. Importance of Water.- 4. “Conditioning Films” and Extracellular Slime Layers.- 4.1. Organic and Inorganic Conditioning Films.- 4.2. Bacterial Extracellular Slime Layers.- 5. Metabolic Activity of Particle-Bound Cells in Soil.- 6. Physicochemical Properties and Mechanisms That Can Affect Adhesion.- 6.1. Charge Interactions.- 6.2. Hydrogen Bonding.- 6.3. Other Interactions.- 6.4. Factors Determining Dominant Interactions.- 7. Surface Interactions between Clay Minerals and Biological Entities.- 7.1. General Considerations.- 7.2. Bacteria.- 7.3. Viruses.- 7.4. Fungi.- 7.5. Proteinaceous Compounds.- 8. Conclusions.- References.- 9 Mechanisms of Bacterial Adhesion to Plant Surfaces.- 1. Introduction.- 1.1. General Scope.- 1.2. Comparison of Some Aspects of Bacterial Adhesion to Plant and Animal Cells.- 1.3. Methods of Studying Bacterial Adhesion to Plant Cells.- 2. Interactions of Rhizobia with the Root Surface.- 2.1. The Infection Process.- 2.2. Role of Bacterial Adhesion in the Formation of Nodules.- 2.3. Role of Plant Lectins in Adhesion of Rhizobia to Root Hairs.- 2.4. Genetics of Attachment of Rhizobium.- 2.5. Model for Attachment of Rhizobium to the Root Hair Surface.- 3. Interactions of Agrobacteria with the Plant Cell Surface.- 3.1. Bacterial Induction of Crown Gall Tumors.- 3.2. General Characteristics of Binding of A. tumefaciens to Plant Cells.- 3.3. Plant Receptors for Binding of A. tumefaciens.- 3.4. The Bacterial Binding Site.- 3.5. Role of Cellulose Fibrils in Attachment of A. tumefaciens.- 3.6. Attachment of A. rhizogenes to Plant Cells.- 3.7. Model for Attachment of A. tumefaciens to the Plant Cell Surface.- 4. Interactions of Pseudomonas, Erwinia, and Xanthomonas with the Plant Cell Surface.- 4.1. Bacterial Attachment and the Hypersensitive Response.- 4.2. Role of Plant Proteins Which Agglutinate Bacteria.- 4.3. Adhesion of Bacteria to the Outer Surface of the Plant.- 5. Conclusions.- References.- 10 Adhesion of Bacteria to Animal Tissues: Complex Mechanisms.- 1. Introduction.- 2. “Bridging” Ligands Produced by Bacteria.- 2.1. The Role of Lipoteichoic Acid as an Adhesin for Group A Streptococci.- 2.2. The Role of LTA as an Adhesin for Group B Streptococci.- 2.3. The Role of LTA as an Adhesin for Other Organisms.- 2.4. LTA Summary.- 3. Host-Derived “Bridging” Ligands.- 3.1. The Role of Fibronectin in the Adhesion of Bacteria to Animal Tissues.- 3.2. The Role of Other Serum Proteins in the Adhesion of Bacteria to Animal Tissues.- 4. Bacterial Adhesion to Tissues by “Bridging” Cells.- 4.1. “Bridging” Cells of Bacterial Origin—The Formation of Dental Plaque.- 4.2. “Bridging” Cells of Host Origin—The Pathogenesis of Bacterial Endocarditis.- 5. Conclusion.- References.- 11 Pilus Adhesins.- 1. Introduction.- 1.1. Definitions.- 1.2. Physicochemical Considerations of Adhesion.- 1.3. General Mechanisms of Adhesion.- 2. Pili as Adhesins.- 2.1. In Vivo.- 2.2. In Vitro.- 3. Structure of Pili.- 3.1. Morphology.- 3.2. Biochemistry.- 3.3. Antigenicity.- 4. Genetics.- 4.1. Gene Loci.- 4.2. Expression.- 4.3. The Role of Pilus (Adhesin) Expression in the Establishment of Populations.- 5. Adhesin Receptors.- 5.1. P-Pili (Fimbriae)-Specific Receptors.- 5.2. Other Pilus-Specific Receptors.- 6. Concluding Remarks.- References.- III. Consequences of Adhesion.- 12 Effect of Solid Surfaces on the Activity of Attached Bacteria.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Comparative Activities of Attached and Free-Living Bacteria in the Natural Environment.- 2.1. Bacteria Associated with Suspended Particles in Aquatic Environments.- 2.2. Bacterial Biofilms on Submerged Solid Surfaces.- 3. Comparative Activities of Attached and Free-Living Bacteria in the Laboratory.- 3.1. Enhancement by Solid Surfaces of Suspended and Surface-Associated Bacterial Activity.- 3.2. Enhancement of Bacterial Activity through Attachment to Solid Surfaces.- 3.3. Lack of Effect or Inhibition of Activity by Solid Surfaces.- 3.4. Complex Interactions between Bacterium, Substrate, and Substratum.- 3.5. Effects of Surfaces on Bacterial Morphology.- 3.6. Promotion of Bacterial Survival at Surfaces.- 4. Possible Mechanisms for the Effects of Surfaces on Activity.- 4.1. The Solid Surface as a Microenvironment.- 4.2. Direct Influence of the Surface on Bacterial Physiological Processes.- 5. Conclusions.- References.- 13 Influence of Attachment on Microbial Metabolism and Growth in Aquatic Ecosystems.- 1. Introduction—The Aquatic Environment: Surface versus Planktonic Environments.- 2. Microbial Attachment in Aquatic Environments.- 2.1. Factors Initiating Attachment.- 2.2. Postadhesive Events and Their Effects on Modification of the Liquid-Solid Interface.- 3. Aquatic Microzones as Sites of Postattachment Alteration (Modification) of Metabolism.- 4. Diversification of Microzones.- 5. Examination of Microzone Gradients and Patchiness.- 6. Dynamics of Natural Planktonic and Benthic Aquatic Microzone Habitats.- 7. Microbial Metabolism and Growth Characteristics in Surface Microzones.- 8. Ecological and Trophic Implications of Microzone Development and Proliferation.- 9. Future Outlooks and Research Needs.- References.- 14 Responses of Plant Cells to Adsorbed Bacteria.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Nitrogen-Fixing Bacteria That Infect Root Hairs.- 2.1. Rhizobia.- 2.2. Frankia spp.- 3. Tumor-Forming Agrobacterium spp.- 3.1. Events Leading to Tumorigenesis.- 3.2. Nontumorigenic Responses to Agrobacterium spp.- 4. Resistance to Bacterial Invaders.- 4.1. Events Associated with the Hypersensitive Reaction.- 4.2. Immobilization and Associated Morphological Responses.- 4.3. Biochemical Host Responses.- 5. Nonparasitic Rhizoplane and Phylloplane Bacteria.- 5.1. Responses to Associative Nitrogen-Fixing Bacteria.- 5.2. General Responses to Nonparasitic Bacteria.- 6. Research Priorities for the Future.- References.- 15 Effects on Host Animals of Bacteria Adhering to Epithelial Surfaces.- 1. Introduction.- 1.1. Association and Adhesion.- 1.2. Effects on Hosts of Bacteria Associating with Epithelia.- 1.3. Limitations and Goals.- 2. Effects on Hosts Leading to Disease.- 2.1. Introduction: Bacterial Pathogens That Associate with Epithelial Surfaces.- 2.2. Mechanisms by Which Bacterial Pathogens Associated with Epithelial Surfaces Induce Disease.- 2.3. Effects of Bacterial Pathogens on Host Resistance Functions.- 2.4. Diseases of Unknown Etiology That May Involve Bacteria Associated with Epithelial Surfaces.- 2.5. Summary: How Bacteria That Associate with Epithelial Surfaces Induce Disease.- 3. Effects on Hosts Not Normally Leading to Disease.- 3.1. Introduction: Indigenous Bacteria That Associate with Epithelial Surfaces.- 3.2. Effects on Host of Adherent Indigenous Bacteria.- 3.3. Summary: How Indigenous Bacteria Associated with Epithelial Surfaces Influence Their Animal Hosts.- 4. Research in the Future.- 4.1. Present State of Research.- 4.2. Focus for the Future.- 5. Summary.- References.