Karst Hydrogeology and Geomorphology

The first half of the book is a systematic presentation of the dissolution kinetics, chemical equilibria and physical flow laws relating to karst environments. It includes details of the many environmental factors that complicate their chemical evolution, with a critique of measurement of karst erosion rates. The second half of the book looks at the classification system for cave systems and the influence of climate and climatic change on karst development. The book ends with chapters on karst water resource management and a look at the important issues of environmental management, including environmental impact assessment, environmental rehabilitation, tourism impacts and conservation values. Practical application of karst studies are explained throughout the text.

"This new edition strengthens the book's position as the essential reference in the field. Karst geoscientists will not dare to stray beyond arm's reach of this volume. It is certain to remain the professional standard for many decades." Journal of Cave and Karst Studies, August 2007

Preface xi

Acknowledgements xiii

1 Introduction to Karst 1

1.1 Definitions 1

1.2 The Relationships of Karst with General Geomorphology and Hydrogeology 4

1.3 The Global Distribution of Karst 5

1.4 The Growth of Ideas 6

1.5 Aims of the Book 8

1.6 Karst Terminology 8

2 The Karst Rocks 9

2.1 Carbonate Rocks and Minerals 9

2.2 Limestone Compositions and Depositional Facies 12

2.3 Limestone Diagenesis and the Formation of Dolomite 18

2.4 The Evaporite Rocks 24

2.5 Quartzites and Siliceous Sandstones 27

2.6 Effects of Lithological Properties upon Karst Development 28

2.7 Interbedded Clastic Rocks 31

2.8 Bedding Planes, Joints, Faults and Fracture Traces 31

2.9 Fold Topography 35

2.10 Palaeokarst Unconformities 36

3 Dissolution: Chemical and Kinetic Behaviour of the Karst Rocks 39

3.1 Introduction 39

3.2 Aqueous Solutions and Chemical Equilibria 41

3.3 The Dissolution of Anhydrite, Gypsum and Salt 44

3.4 The Dissolution of Silica 45

3.5 Bicarbonate Equilibria and the Dissolution of Carbonate Rocks in Normal Meteoric Waters 45

3.6 The S–O–H System and the Dissolution of Carbonate Rocks 53

3.7 Chemical Complications in Carbonate Dissolution 57

3.8 Biokarst Processes 61

3.9 Measurements in the Field and Laboratory: Computer Programs 62

3.10 Dissolution and Precipitation Kinetics of Karst Rocks 65

4 Distribution and Rate of Karst Denudation 77

4.1 Global Variations in the Solutional Denudation of Carbonate Terrains 77

4.2 Measurement and Calculation of Solutional Denudation Rates 82

4.3 Solution Rates in Gypsum, Salt and Other Non-Carbonate Rocks 90

4.4 Interpretation of Measurements 92

5 Karst Hydrogeology 103

5.1 Basic Hydrogeological Concepts, Terms and Definitions 103

5.2 Controls on the Development of Karst Hydrological Systems 116

5.3 Energy Supply and Flow-Network Development 124

5.4 Development of the Water Table and Phreatic Zones 129

5.5 Development of the Vadose Zone 132

5.6 Classification and Characteristics of Karst Aquifers 134

5.7 Applicability of Darcy’s Law to Karst 136

5.8 Freshwater–Saltwater Interface 140

6 Analysis of Karst Drainage Systems 145

6.1 The ‘Grey Box’ Nature of Karst 145

6.2 Surface Exploration and Survey Techniques 146

6.3 Investigating Recharge and Percolation in the Vadose Zone 153

6.4 Borehole Analysis 163

6.5 Spring Hydrograph Analysis 173

6.6 Polje Hydrograph Analysis 181

6.7 Spring Chemograph Interpretation 182

6.8 Storage Volumes and Flow Routing Under Different States of the Hydrograph 187

6.9 Interpreting the Organization of a Karst Aquifer 189

6.10 Water-Tracing Techniques 191

6.11 Computer Modelling of Karst Aquifers 203

7 Speleogenesis: The Development of Cave Systems 209

7.1 Classifying Cave Systems 209

7.2 Building the Plan Patterns of Unconfined Caves 214

7.3 Unconfined Cave Development in Length and Depth 222

7.4 System Modifications Occurring within a Single Phase 231

7.5 Multiphase Cave Systems 233

7.6 Meteoric Water Caves Developed Where There is Confined Circulation or Basal Injection of Water 236

7.7 Hypogene Caves: Hydrothermal Caves Associated Chiefly with CO 2 240

7.8 Hypogene Caves: Caves Formed by Waters Containing H 2 S 243

7.9 Sea-Coast Eogenetic Caves 246

7.10 Passage Cross-Sections and Smaller Features of Erosional Morphology 249

7.11 Condensation, Condensation Corrosion and Weathering in Caves 261

7.12 Breakdown in Caves 265

8 Cave Interior Deposits 271

8.1 Introduction 271

8.2 Clastic Sediments 271

8.3 Calcite, Aragonite and Other Carbonate Precipitates 281

8.4 Other Cave Minerals 292

8.5 Ice in Caves 294

8.6 Dating of Calcite Speleothems and Other Cave Deposits 298

8.7 Palaeoenvironmental Analysis of Calcite Speleothems 306

8.8 Mass Flux Through a Cave System: The Example of Friar’s Hole, West Virginia 320

9 Karst Landform Development in Humid Regions 321

9.1 Coupled Hydrological and Geochemical Systems 321

9.2 Small-Scale Solution Sculpture – Microkarren and Karren 321

9.3 Dolines – The ‘Diagnostic’ Karst Landform? 339

9.4 The Origin and Development of Solution Dolines 342

9.5 The Origin of Collapse and Subsidence Depressions 346

9.6 Polygonal Karst 351

9.7 Morphometric Analysis of Solution Dolines 353

9.8 Landforms Associated with Allogenic Inputs: Contact Karst 358

9.9 Karst Poljes 361

9.10 Corrosional Plains and Shifts in Baselevel 365

9.11 Residual Hills on Karst Plains 370

9.12 Depositional and Constructional Karst Features 377

9.13 Special Features of Evaporite Terrains 381

9.14 Karstic Features of Quartzose and Other Rocks 388

9.15 Sequences of Carbonate Karst Evolution in Humid Terrains 391

9.16 Computer Models of Karst Landscape Evolution 395

10 The Influence of Climate, Climatic Change and Other Environmental Factors on Karst Development 401

10.1 The Precepts of Climatic Geomorphology 401

10.2 The Hot Arid Extreme 402

10.3 The Cold Extreme: Karst Development in Glaciated Terrains 410

10.4 The Cold Extreme: Karst Development in Permafrozen Terrains 421

10.5 Sea-Level Changes, Tectonic Movement and Implications for Coastal Karst Development 427

10.6 Polycyclic, Polygenetic and Exhumed Karsts 434

11 Karst Water Resources Management 441

11.1 Water Resources and Sustainable Yields 441

11.2 Determination of Available Water Resources 442

11.3 Karst Hydrogeological Mapping 445

11.4 Human Impacts on Karst Water 449

11.5 Groundwater Vulnerability, Protection and Risk Mapping 460

11.6 Dam Building, Leakages, Failures and Impacts 464

12 Human Impacts and Environmental Rehabilitation 471

12.1 The Inherent Vulnerability of Karst Systems 471

12.2 Deforestation, Agricultural Impacts and Rocky Desertification 473

12.3 Sinkholes, Induced by Dewatering, Surcharging, Solution Mining and other Practices on Karst 478

12.4 Problems of Construction on and in the Karst Rocks – Expect the Unexpected! 485

12.5 Industrial Exploitation of Karst Rocks and Minerals 489

12.6 Restoration of Karstlands and Rehabilitation of Limestone Quarries 494

12.7 Sustainable Management of Karst 499

12.8 Scientific, Cultural and Recreational Values of Karstlands 502

References 505

Index 554

Derek R. Ford is Assistant Professor of Education Studies at DePauw University, USA. He is the author of multiple books.

Paul D. Williams is the author of Karst Hydrogeology and Geomorphology, published by Wiley.